SECTION 1: Key Information by Painter G-I

Pittura

Painters have been listed alphabetically ignoring all prefix except Le, La, El & Van, eg Van Gogh is listed as such.   Last names -or town names before surnames existed- take precedence over preceding  names, except where this would be positively misleading, eg Rembrandt & not Van Rijn.   Well-known nicknames  take precedence over real names, eg Volterra rather than Riciarelli.

CONTENTS: SURNAMES  BEGINNING WITH LETTERS:

G H I

G

– Agnolo GADDI, active 1369-96, Taddeo’s son, Italy=Florence:

Influences: Giotto through his father Murrays1959
Career: In 1369 he was assisting his brother Giovann in the Vatican & he was prosperous,  then he worked in Prato, & in Florence where he joined the Guild of St Luke & began his long association with its cathedral Murrays1959, Grove11 p892.
Oeuvre: Frescos & attributed panel paintings together with stained-glass design OxDicArt, White p568

Characteristics: Towards the end of the 1380s he developed his own distinctive style particularly in his Legend of the True Cross, in Santa Grace, Florence, 1388-93.  This was a  vast, ambitious, & daringly inventive fresco cycle Grove 11 p892.  It has been described as “fantastical” L&L.  [However this is grossly misleading.  Obviously, the scenes are works of fantasy if this is taken to mean the product of a rich imagination & creative power.  [Nevertheless, they should not be viewed as divorced from reality but regarded as an attempt by Agnolo to move beyond the pioneering but sober work of Giotto & to depict the saliant features that a perceptive viewer would report having seen after looking carefully at the external world while at the same time producing works with a strong decorative appeal.  This he achieved through clear delineation, emphatic light effects, the creation of illusory distance, & the arrangement of works in a narrative sequence, etc.  The methods he employed were unsophisticated & crude when compared with those of Masaccio] but Agnolo was of course working before the latter was even born See Grove11 p 802; Antal1948 p204.

Innovations: The depiction of artisans at work as in the genre-like fresco of the Making of the Cross (Santa Groce); tentative diagonal recessions which lead from figures in the foreground to distant background views; & complex colour harmonies employing cool pale colours as in the Penance of St Julian, c1394 (Alte Pinakothek, Munich) Antal1948 p204, L&L, OxDicArt, Grove11 p894, webimage
Pupil/Legacy: Cennini was his pupil & his colours influenced the refined late Gothic artists of the next generation, such as Lorenzo Monaco Murrays1959

* Taddeo GADDI, active 1332-66, Agnolo’s father, Italy=Florence; Early Florence

Background: He was the son of Gaddo Gaddi, active1312-30, the first member of the painting dynasty Grove11 p887
Training: He was Giotto’s best known pupil probably working for many years in his workshop L&L, Grove11 p887
Influences: The Lorenzetti’s & Taddeo’s acquaintance with the mystic Fras Simone Fidati L&L,

Career: From around 1530 he painted outstanding frescos of the Life of the Virgin (Baroncelli chapel, Santa Groce, Florence Brigstocke, Grove11 p888,  L&L.  Later during the 1440s he frescoed in the former refectory producing his joint Tree of Life & Last Supper L&L,Grove11 pp 888. 890
Oeuvre: Frescos, large panel paintings & small devotional works L&L, Grove11 p888

Characteristics: His early Santa Groce frescos advance beyond Giotto by having powerful foreshortening, highly developed spatial effects, inventive architectural structures, & dramatic light effects.   Their detailing is greater & more complex than Giotto’s & his works are more emotional.   There is greater mystical tendency & emphasis on human intimacy & as shown by the way in which the Virgin’s companion leans forward to grasp Christ’s hand.  The mysticism is achieved by means of lighting & the strangeness of the soaring spidery architecture & rocky landscape Grove11 p888, Brigstocke, White p415.   The former refectory work displays his abiding interest in illusionism & light & is a powerful  decorative work Grove11 pp 888, 890

Innovations: Nocturnal light effects, & the first known independent & post-antique still-life (niche, Baroncelli chapel) L&L
Status: He was one of Giotto’s most faithful followers & one of the most inventive & influential painters in 14^th century Florence Murrays1959, Grove11 p888
Patrons: He & his workshop were the leading painters for the Franciscans in Florence Grove11 p888

***GAINSBOROUGH, Thomas, 1727-88, Dupont’s uncle, England: Romantic Picturesque and British Golden Age Movement

Background: He was born at Sudbury into a family that had long been connected with the manufacture of woollen goods & his father was a prosperous cloth merchant.   However his business failed & in 1733 he became the local postmaster.   Two of William’s sisters became milliners.   He came of dissenting stock, his brother became a dissenting minister, & his sister married one Hayes1980 pp 16-7, Vaughan2002 pp 16, 19.

Training: In 1740 Gainsborough went to London & appears to have had some tuition from a silversmith,  but his main training was with Gravelot, an engraver who had been Boucher’s pupil.   Gainsborough attended St Martin’s Lane Academy, run by Hogarth & at which Hayman taught Vaughan2002 p27, Hayes1980 p18.

Influences: The Rococo style & Watteau; later on by Van Dyke & Rubens; & for his fancy pictures Murillo Vaughan2002 pp 7-8, 104, 107, 173, BurkeJ p217

Career & Clientele: He went to the local grammar school where his mother’s brother, who was a Church of England clergyman, was the master Hayes1980 p17, Vaughan2002 p18.   When a schoolboy he imitated Dutch landscapes which was then extremely unusual Waterhouse1958 pp12-3.   Around 1744 Gainsborough established his own studio in London & in 1746 married Margaret Burr.   She was the  beautiful illegitimate daughter of the Duke of Beaufort & brought a substantial endowment.   In 1749 Gainsborough moved to Sudbury where he stayed until 1752 when he moved to Ipswich Hayes1980 pp 18-9, Vaughan2002 pp 30, 37.

At Ipswich he earned his living by painting portraits.  Although well drawn they were at first stiffly painted, as his portrait of Admiral Vernon, shows.   But during his last years at Ipswich he was painting with freedom & ease.    His clientele for portraits was largely among the clergy & professional classes who wanted an inexpensive head & shoulders against a plain background.    However he did begin to receive commission to paint the aristocracy, assisted here by his friend who was the town clerk.   His prices were low by London standards.   It was not until the late 1750s that he started painting full-length & life-size portraits.   There was some demand for landscapes but it was not great Hayes1980 p2, Vaughan2002 pp 37, 72.  

In 1759 the Gainsborough moved to Bath where they remained until the final move to London in 1774.   Hitherto a provincial painter he now became a leader of fashion.   His first major portrait was a foretaste of what was to come.   It was a full-length but seated portrait of Ann Ford.   None of his Ipswich works prefigured the grandeur, pose & beautiful brushwork of this painting.   It was to be followed by a series of outstanding, varied & original works of which Mary, Countess Howe, around 1763, & Mary Duchess of Montague, of about 1768, deserve special mention.   Such was the demand for his paintings that he was able to substantially raise his prices.   Yet he complained that “People with their dammed Faces” would not let him alone.   After he had finished his pictures for the annual exhibition of the Society of Artists, he was at last able sketch in the countryside & paint landscapes.   Although their merit was now recognised they were nevertheless difficult to sell Vaughan2002 pp 73, 102, 111, 123, 133, Hayes1970 p23-4, 27, 112.    

Gainsborough’s manner of painting did not undergo any fundamental change after he moved to London.   However his handling became increasingly allusive, rhythmic & flowing achieved by a greater use of turpentine [& presumably painting at a distance with long handled brushes].   His finest portraits now had an exquisite silvery tonality & he began to envelop his sitters in their landscape setting.   They now sometimes  appeared to belong to a world of romance, sensibility  & feeling Vaughan2002 pp 135-6, 181-3, Hayes1970 p128.   In 1777 he received his first royal commission when he painted twin portraits of the duke & duchess of Cumberland.   These were followed in 1780 by paintings of the King & Queen, & then most of their children.   These fine works greatly enhanced his reputation.   However, after 1784 he only worked  for the more disreputable members of the royal family, the Prince of Wales & the Duke of Cumberland.   It was Reynolds who replaced Ramsay as principal painter to George III.   This Gainsborough attributed to lobbying by Reynold’s friends  Vaughan2002 pp 149-57.   The years in London had unhappy aspects including differences with his tight fisted wife over money, the mental instability of a daughter who eloped & made a disastrous marriage, & the hanging of a painting at RA which led to his boycotting its exhibitions from 1784 Vaughan2002 pp 144-6, 161-7.        

Oeuvre: Portraits, of which about 140 were full-length; land & seascapes; & fancy pictures Times5/8/17 (Prodger), Vaughan2002

Technique & Methods: All contemporary commentators agreed that Gainsborough had a special way of painting.    His works are, as he intended,  only clear from a distance.   Portraits were begun in a darkened room in order to suppress distracting detail, & used brushes on six foot poles.   He painted wet on wet without glazing & hence the colours & marks on the canvas only combine at a proper distance, although unlike the Impressionists his brushwork was highly fluid.    He used ground glass for luminosity Vaughan 2002 pp 28-9, 83-6.   Nevertheless, he strove to achieve an accurate appearance.   He would place the canvas beside the sitter in order to ensure that the dimensions & general forms were accurate.   He began his portraits in a darkened room in order to suppress distracting detail, & painted at distance with brushes on six foot poles.   Nevertheless, he strove to achieve an accurate appearance Vaughan2002 pp 83-87.   He used distinctive mushroom pink grounds Grove23 p378.

Phases: His portraits although well drawn they were at first stiffly painted, as his portrait of Admiral Vernon, shows.   But during his last years at Ipswich he was painting with freedom & ease.   During his early years at Bath he grafted all the elegance he could learn from Van Dyke, as seen in West Country collections, onto his informal style.   His portrait of Mrs Thicknesse represents is informal whereas those of Lady Sefton & Captain Wade display Vandyckian elegance.  During his final years Gainsborough painted a number of full-length portraits which have a distinctive & experimental quality.   The sitters are not cross-legged, there is often movement or action & few of the sitters have decided individual character.   These works belong to an older & more elevated tradition of painting  & are Reynolds-like   the portraits of Madame Baccelli, 1782, Lord Rodney, 1783/6, & in The Morning Walk are examples Waterhouse1958 pp 17, 20–1, 26-8.

Characteristics: His colouring is [in general] rich & warm, great attention is paid to the rendering of costume, & his female portraits are in general superior to those of men.   Although some of his best portraits are male, he was rarely successful with men of a domineering type for whom a grand style was required & this he distrusted Vaughan2002 pp 86, 89, 112.

Although he certainly painted grand portraits (The Hon Mrs Thomas Graham, Lady Ashton, etc), it is notable how many sitters are accompanied by dogs, are in relaxed postures, or are handling musical instruments (or like Ann Ford both together).   Another feature is  how many of his subjects have just been or will soon be in motion: they are not statuesque Vaughan2002.   He did however employ big picture poses taken from Van Dyck, ie (i) a man with one arm resting backhanded on hip & the other hanging loosely alongside body as in The Blue Boy, (ii) a male with weight  transferred  to one leg so that straight & bent legs contrasted, e.g. John, 10^th Viscount Kilmorey, (iii) the standing female with one arm handling or lifting her dress with the other held freely across her body, e.g. Lady Sheffield, (iv) a female with folded or liked arms which frame the torso, e.g. Mrs Robinson as Perdita.   A common feature is a contraposto pose with the head facing the spectator across a body turned to one side BurkeJ p215

Do Gainborough’s Sitters Look Amiable?   To discover whether the adults who appear in Gainsborough’s portraits of are amiable, relaxed & informal, or whether they are proud & pompous, the full-page images were examined in two well-known books (Vaughan2002 , Hayes119661980).   They contain 30 plates excluding duplicates.   Of these eight or nine might be seen as exemplifying arrogance.   However one is an oldish woman (Mary, Duchess of Montagu) who is dignified rather than proud & pompous; & another (The Rev Sir Henry Bate-Dudley) who has a determined expression was known as the fighting parson   Hayes119661980 p124

Landscapes:  Initially he was a disciple of Lambert & Wooton; next under Dutch influenced came detailed Realism; & then came a revolutionary change following his move to Bath when he was under the influence of paintings by Poussin & Claude & the poets who celebrated traditional rural society Hussey pp 255-6, Vaughan 2002 pp 125-6.   Instead of the accurate recording of picturesque objects he now painted in a rapid & sensitive manner what he felt emotionally when looking Hussey p256.   He was hostile to real views as shown by his letter to Lord Hardwick, & to historical landscape Vaughan 2002 p125.   Nevertheless he made makes studies in the countryside outside Bath Vaughan 2002 pp 128-9.    He painted idyllic & arcadian scenes when at Bath e.g., peasants going to & coming from market Vaughan 2002 pp 123-5, 128.   During the 1760s his works start to feature a traditional & easeful view of rural life as envisaged by Gray & Goldsmith, but by end of his period in Bath his rural scenes became less idyllic.   The wood gatherer in the Woodcutter’s Return, 1772-3, is no longer the sanguine man of Cornard Wood (1748) Vaughan2002 pp 125, 130.   His late paintings of rural poor from 1782 depict glum working children Barrell pp 82-2.   During the early 1780s he began painting seascapes, mountain scenes & also fancy pictures of the young in rural settings.   He visited the Lake District in 1783 Vaughan 2002 pp 184-5, 188, 193-5.   His final landscapes have  a Rubens-like breadth of handling & lead into the new world of Constable.   Throughout his life pastoral & landscape painting afforded him escape & relaxation Vaughan 2002 pp 90, 129-30, Waterhouse1958 p34 

Issues: Were his genre-landscapes sentimental?  Hussey says not: his is rustics & children were simply picturesque & agreeable subjects Hussey p257.   However according to Barrell they were Barrell p3.   [To see his pictures of the rural poor as the sentimentalisation of rural distress (The Cottage Girl) is to ignore their historical context & the way in which Hogarth had depicted a brutal & unappealing proletariat.   Gainsborough endowed them with humanity & feeling.   See The HUMANISATION OF PAINTING]

Gainsborough & Reynolds Compared: Gainsborough was interested in drapery whereas Reynolds was not Vaughan 2002 p16.   Gainsborough’s military portraits were few & poor as against those of Reynolds which were numerous & good Vaughan 2002 pp 72, 112, 118.    Gainsborough stressed accurate appearance whereas Reynolds aimed at idealisation & ennoblement Vaughan 2002 pp 85-6.   Gainsborough disliked the plainness of the grand manner portraits & favoured  lively touches & surprising effects Vaughan2002 p112.   Gainsborough was interested in motion compared but Reynolds painted  a still moment in time Piper p205. Gainsborough’s paintings were more daring, witness his portrait of Ann Ford, portrayed with crossed legs Vaughan p74.   Reynolds had many assistants whereas Gainsborough only had one Vaughan2002 p89

Personal: [Gainsborough was a fascinating & paradoxical person.]    He was an interesting mixture of daring & diffidence, of ignorance & culture, of intemperate behaviour  & religion…  He had a passion for music & belonged to the Ipswich Music Club & improvised  on musical instruments, as with paint.   Though a spritely conversationalist,  he was firmly anti-intellectual & his aversion to books was notorious Vaughan, & 2002 p37.   He greatly enjoyed the mental & physical companionship of women.   There were stories of how he would sometimes have to leave the studio to find a prostitute, & his conversation was licentious.    In 1763 he nearly died after catching something from a London whore.   He was deeply religious.   Unlike Reynolds he did not paint on Sunday & regularly attended chapel.   He was dedicated to painting, yet, according to his daughter he was sometimes unable to work for a week after heavy drinking Vaughan1999 pp 86-7, 90-1, &2002 pp 23, 37, Hayes1980 pp 13-5, Times5/8/17 (Prodger)

Friends: Price, Gilpin Hussey p62

Innovations: The cult of picturesque peasant hovel & the gipsy Hussey pp 256-7

Influence: His late paintings in which sitters are shown as dominated by feeling & are at one with the landscape background began the romantic approach to portraiture which Lawrence took forward Hayes1970 pp 128, 140-2, Vaughan2002 pp 181-3.   The broken & free brushwork he employed were one of his great contributions to British art & a style that would be adopted by Millais & Sargent R&S p204

**GALLEN-KALLELA, Arseli, 1865-1931, Finland:

Background: He was born & grew up at Pori on the west coast RA1900 p386
Training: In Helsinki at the Finnish Fine Art  Association, & at Adolf von Becker’s academy.   In  1884 he went to Paris where he studied at the Academie Julian & in Fernand Cormon’s studio RA1900 p386
Influences: Initially Bastien-Lepage, & then the Symbolism of the Strindberg-Munch group at the Black Piglet tavern in Berlin.   From 1895 he was influenced by Jugendstil RA1900 p386, GibsonM pp 152, 232.   Throughout his life he was passionately interested to Finnish mythology, the Kelevala & the Kanteltar.   His heavily Symbolist style been attributed to the death of his small daughter from diphtheria Ateneum p84, RA1900 p386

Career: In 1890 & 1892 he travelled in eastern Finland & Karelia documenting folk art, vernacular architecture & physiognomic types.   Inspired by Karelian buildings he designed & built a studio at studio at Ruovesi in central Finland, 1894-5.   It was a key work in the National Romanticism movement & he led Young Finland which combined Nietzsche, occultism, & nationalism.   At Ruovesi he produced pioneering woodcuts, stained glass, etc.   This design work fulfilled his wish for a national renaissance based on traditional forms & abstract organic patterns.   In 1907 he briefly joined Die Brucke Grove 12 p20, RA1900 p386

Phases: At first naturalism but in 1890, when honeymooning in Karelia, he began painting works inspired by the Finnish legends, the first of which was the Aino Myth, 1891.   Around 1894 he turned to Symbolism & painted Lemminkainen’s Mother, 1897 in what has favourably described as a more simplified & intuitive manner, unfavourably as a rather stilted work, & neutrally as heavily freighted L&L, RA1900 p386, Atheneum p86, GibsonM p152.   His later work later work was an eclectic mix of Expressionist colour & Jugendstil design RA1900 p386.   During 1909-3 on a trip to East Africa he painted sun-drenched, simplified landscapes in a high colour key & between 1901& 1903 & in the 1920s he worked on fresco commissions Grove12 p21

Aim: To discover a purer & more genuine life: not actual life but life as it might be.   This was to be found amid the Finnish people where in the deep backwoods honesty & the quality of life were not yet corrupted Ateneum p83
Innovation: In 1885 he painted what was indisputably a Finnish Realist work of art, viz The Old Woman & the Cat Ateneum p83

-GALLOCHE, Louis, 1670-1761, France:

Background: He was born in Paris Grove12 p27
Training: Louis Boullogne Grove12 p27
Influences: de Piles & Flemish inspired colourists.   His landscapes were inspired by 17^th century Italian painting & by Poussin Wakefield p42, Grove12 p27
Career: In 1695 he won the Prix de Rome & spent two years in Rome.   In 1711 he became a member of the Academy, in 1720 a professor, in 1746 rector & in 1754 chancellor.   Between 1737 & 1751 he exhibited regularly at the Salon Grove12 p27
Oeuvre: Religious works, landscapes & rare portraits Grove12 p27
Phases: Initially because of a lull in royal patronage he accepted religious commissions Grove12 p27
Characteristics: His landscapes display his ability as a colourist & his portraits are forceful & expressive Grove17 p27
Status: He was considered one of the 12 most famous artists of his day Wakefield p44
Grouping: Rococo Grove12 p27
Influence/Pupil: He was one of the most original teachers of his time who advocated studying nature in the countryside.   Lemoine was a pupil Wakefield p42

-GAMBARA, Lattanzio, 1530-74, Romanino’s son-in-law, Italy:

Background: He was born in Brescia Grove12 p29
Training: Almost certainly with Giulio Campi in Cremona Grove12 p29
Influences: Lombard & Emilian Mannerism, Giulio Romano, Camillo Boccaccino Parmigianino & Michelangelo Grove12 p29
Career: In 1549 he returned to Brescia, became Romanino’s assistant & married his daughter, 1556.   During the 1550s he collaborated with Romanino
Oeuvre: Prolific fresco paintings Grove12 p29
Characteristics: His work was eclectic, became academically dry, & then turgidly Mannerist at the Parma & Cremona cathedrals  Grove12 p29
Status: After Romanino’s death he was the leading artist in Brescia Grove12 p29

..GARBER, Daniel, 1880-1958, USA:

Background: He was born at North Manchester, Indiana, the son of a Menonite farmer Peterson p130
Training: At the Art Academy of Cincinnati &, 1899-1905, at the Pennsylvania Academy under Thomas Anshutz Peterson p9, Gerdts1980 p98
Influences: Frank Duveneck Petersen p130.
Career: After two years of travel & study in Europe, Garber settled near Lumberville in 1907.   It was a tiny village a few miles from New Hope.   In 1909 he began teaching at the Pennsylvania Academy where he remained for 41 years.   In 1913 he was elected to the National Academy of Design Peterson pp 9, 132
Oeuvre: Landscapes, interior with figures & portraits Peterson pp 130-41
Speciality: Paintings of quarries around 1917 at Bryam New Jersey where a disfigured landscape & a seemingly prosaic subject was depicted  as a serene & glowing scene Petersen pp 132-3, Gerdts1980 p99
Characteristics: His works feature strong chirascuro.   In his figure paintings individuals are set against the bright outdoors with which they stand in contrast &/or by which they are illuminated.   His works have been likened to those of George Innes & the Barbizon tradition where nature is experiences as elevating, enabling & elegiac but somewhat melancholy Petersen pp 131-41, Gerdts1999 p99.
Status: He was the mainstay of the Pennsylvania School who maintained the highest standard of the European & American tradition Peterson p8
Grouping: American Impressionism Gerdts1984 p282

..GARDNER, Elizabeth, 1837-1922, USA/France:

Background: She was born in Exeter, New Hampshire & was from an old merchant family AinP p241
Training: With the figurative painter Hugues Merle, briefly with Jean-Baptiste-Tissier, dressed as a man at the drawing school of the Gobelins concern in order to work from the nude, & at the Academie Julian under Jules-Joseph Lefebvre & Bouguereau Wikip
Career: After teaching French & the art, she went to Paris in 1864 where she copied paintings to make money.   She exhibited at the Salon in 1868, the first American woman to do so.   In 1872 she received a gold medal, the first woman ever.   She helped many American collectors to buy French paintings Wikip, AinP p241
Personal: She was independent & feisty, applying for a police permit to wear male dress in order to attend the Gobellins life classes.   On the French national holiday she put out the largest flag on the street, the Stars & Stripes.   Her intimate relationship with Bougereau was not kept secret.   They did not marry for fear of offending his tyrannical mother until she died in 1896 Wikip, AinP pp 67, 84-5
Oeuvre: Religious, historical & mythological subjects in a polished academic style, including small pot-boilers AinP pp 85, 241
Patronage: She nurtured connections with dealers & collectors, held & attended receptions, cultivated the press, made use of the American expatriate community, & added American subjects to her repertoire AinP p85
Influence: She was a model for many women artists AinP p33

Gargiulo.   See Spadaro

-GAROFALO/GAROFOLO/TISI, Benvenuto, c1476-1559, Italy=Ferrara:

Background: He was born at Ferrara Grove12 p161
Training: Boccaccio Boccaccino Grove12 p161
Influences: In turn Bolognese classicism & Francesco Francia & Lorenzo Costa; Mantagna’s mantuan work; Giorgione; Raphael, & Michelangelo Grove12 pp 161-2.
Career: Around 1505 he contributed to the important fresco decorations at the Concezione oratory (now in the Pinacoteca Nazionale), helped decorate the apartments of Lucrezia Borgia, & painted strikingly illusionistic ceiling decorations in the Palazzo di Ludovico il Moro.   He appears to have visited Rome twice & also Venice.   He was a tireless worker later produced numerous altarpieces for Ferrara’s churches.   By 1550 he was totally blind Grove12 pp161-2, OxDicArt, NGArt1986 p141
Oeuvre: It was large & mainly religious pictures & some mythological works OxDicArt, L&L
Characteristics: His religious works were in an eclectic & somewhat stiff linear style but his mythologies & ceiling decorations were sophisticated.   Garofolo’s work became more complex,  grandiose  & enriched with Classical illusions L&L, Grove12 p152.
Workshop: It flourished NGArt1986 p141
Status: He was the principal Emilian Classicist during the first half of the 16^th century Grove12 p161

..GARSTIN, Norman, 1847-1926, Ireland/England:

..GARZONI, Giovanna, 1600-1670, Italy:

Training: By an otherwise unknown teacher Grove12 p169
Influences: Jacopo Ligozzi’s miniatures Grove12 p169
Career: During 1625 & 1630 she was in Venice; she worked in Naples in 1630-1 for the Duke of Alcala; spent five years in Turin at the court of Charles Emanuel II, Duke of Savoy; was in Florence during 1643; & settled in Rome during 1651 but continued to work for the Medici Grove12 p169
Oeuvre: Paintings of fruit, vegetables, flowers & occasionally animals; portraits & small devotional works Grove12 p169
Characteristics: She usually pictured one type of fruit or vegetable with tiny daps of watercolour on parchment.   They are well composed & although it has been said that the horizon is too low for spacious realism this is not always the case.   She also painted sumptuous bouquets of flowers in vases Grove12 p170, Greer1980 p231
Patrons: Cassiano del Pozzo & Anna Colonna, Taddeo Barberini’s wife Grove12 p169
Reception: She was widely admired & patronized by Italian & Spanish collectors Grove12 p169
Collections: The Palazzo Pitti Grove12 p169

..Jan Baptist GASPARS/JASPERS, -1691, Belgium/England:

Background: He came from Antwerp Wikip
Training; Thomas Willeborts Wikip
Career: He visited England during the Civil War & was employed by General Lambert.   After the Restoration he painted postures for Lely, Riley & Kneller Waterhouse1953 p98
Oeuvre: Portraits & tapestry design Wikip
Gossip: He was known as Lely’s Baptist because, like the Saint, he prepared the way for his master S-T p12

..GAUERMANN, Friedrich, 1807-62 (Austria):

Background: His father Jacob was a landscape painter & engraver who divided his time between Vienna & a small estate in the mountains near Miesenbach Norman1987 p38
Training: Under his father &, 1824-7, at the Vienna Academy Novotny p202,  Norman1987 p38
Influences: The Dutch 17^th century masters, Rubens, Snyders & Riedinger.   His father stressed the importance of studying from nature & recording what was appealing in both in sketchbook & to his soul Norman1987 p38
Career: When young he sketched landscape, figures & animals & went out with hunting parties around Miesenbach Norman1987 p38
Oeuvre: Animal paintings, landscapes & rustic genre Norman1987 p38
Characteristics/Verdict: His animal & hunting scenes have a complaisant, spurious Romanticism but he was at his best in unpretentious landscapes Novotny p202
Patrons: Metternich, the imperial family & aristocracy Norman1987 p38
Feature: He painted animals in the wild Norman1987 p38
Grouping: Biedermeier but he belonged to the Realist generation Norman1987 p38
Repute: This did not recover until the early 20^th century when his sketches & nature studies were rediscovered Norman1987 p38

***GAUGUIN, Paul, 1848-1903, France:

Background: He was born in Paris, the son of a journalist from Orleans & a Peruvian-Creole mother OxDicMod

Training: Evening sessions at the Academie Colarossi.  By 1879 he was painting under under Pissarro’s guidance L&L

Influences: Berenard at Pont-Avent L&L

Career: He lived in Peru during 1851-5 & then in France.   From 1865 to 1871 he was in the merchant service & the French navy L&L.    He began working in a stockbroker’s office in Paris, took up painting as a hobby & in 1873 married Mette Gad from Copenhagen.   In 1876 he had a landscape exhibited at the Salon L&L.   He exhibited at the 5^th to 8^th Impressionist shows OxDicArt.  In 1883 he gave up stockbroking & began painting full-time.   He moved his with his five children to Rouen but his wife & son returned to Copenhagen where he later joined her, took a job & had a disastrous exhibition L&L.   In 1886 he abandoned his family & then  spent most of the period up to 1890 in Brittany & Pont-Aven, though he visited Panama & Martinique in 1887-8.   At Pont-Aven he was the pivot of a group attracted by his personality & ideas OxDicArt.

In 1890 he joined a circle of Symbolist writers & painters in Paris L&L.   Gaugin had frequented the Universal Exhibition with its Palais des Colonies, 1889, & made studies of figures in native costumes.   The Exhibition reawakened his appetite for the colonial life ThomsonB pp 97-99.  In 1891 he left for Tahiti, returned to France during 1893-5 due to ill-health & poverty, went back to Tahiti, & in 1901 finally transferred to the Marquesas Islands.    During his last years his fortunes varied but he was often ill, moneyless & in 1898 attempted suicide L&L

Oeuvre: Paintings, woodcuts, sculpture & pottery OxDicMod

Phases: He began as a Barbizon School realist & then became an Impressionist.   In 1888 he completely abandoned Impressionism & began using areas of pure, flat colour for expressive & symbolic purposes L&L, OxDicArt  

Characteristics: In his mature work he used colour un-naturalistically for its decorative or emotional effect, & employed emphatic outlines forming rhythmic patterns suggestive of Japanese colour prints or stained glass.   In Tahiti his colour became more resonant, his drawing more grandly simplified.   His work had a rough vigour.   This was partly due to his frequent lack of suitable materials which forced him to spread his paint thinly on coarse sacking OxDicMod

Personal: He was a wife-beater & lived with a 13 year old girl in Tahiti BudickFT 19/2/2014.   Gauguin had syphilis OxDicMod

Beliefs:

(a) On himself: “I don’t give a damn about public opinion & I can do without admirers “, 1889 Guerin p37

(b) On his painting: “I intend to become more & more incomprehensible”, 1889 Guerin p33

(c) On Women: A marginal note in his Noa Noa manuscript says,  “I wanted them [calm eyed Tahitian women] to be willing to be taken without a word.   Taken brutally.   In a way a longing to rape” BudickFT 19/2/2014

Politics:  He claimed to be apolitical but shared many of the basic tenets of anarchism.   For instance Gauguin scorned state support for the arts & took on the view what the state encourages dies, & what it protects dies Guerin pp 29, 32.   However, committed anarchists viewed his life-style, & latterly his subject matter, as a sell-out to the bourgeoisie ThomsonB p174

Innovation: He was primarily responsible for primativism as a cult among Modernists OxDicMod.   In  the  Durand-Ruel exhibition of his Tahiti paintings during 1893, he established the primitive Eve in all her forms: animal litheness, dark & brooding mystery, delightful abandonment ThomsonB pp 165, 170  

Repute/Influence: With the large exhibition of his works at the Salon d’Autome his reputation was firmly established OxDicMod.   He had a remarkable influence on Art Nouveau, Fauvism & Expressionism L&L.   Along with Munch he played an important part in the woodcut revival during the 20^th century OxDicMod

*GAULLI/BACICCIO/BACICCIA, 1639-1709, Italy=Rome:

Background: He was born in Genoa Grove12 p197
Influences: Van Dyck, Strozzi, Correggio, Bernini by whom he was befriended by Waterhouse1962 p69
Career: In 1657 he settled in Rome.   During1669 he was in Palma studying Correggio.  Between 1672 & 1685 he worked at frescos at the Gesu frescoes Waterhouse1962 pp 69-70
Oeuvre: Frescos, altarpieces, mythological scenes & lively portraits, including all seven Popes from Alexander VII to Clement XI, as in Clement IX (Galleria Nazionale, Rome), together with Cardinal children Grove12 p197, Waterhouse1962 p69-70
Characteristics/Phases: Much of his work displays warm, glowing Genoese colour.   During the 1660s he experimented with Bolognese classicism using pale tonalities & depicting gentle movements.   Between 1672 & 85 apart from hard outlines & smooth surfaces his work was sharply different with its powerful, highly agitated rhythms produced by heavy, convoluted, angular garments, & featuring deeply saturated hues.   During his final years his work became more classical with less intense colour & lighter rhythms Grove12 pp 198-200.
Verdict: After 1680 his work displayed a bright, vapid virtuosity Waterhouse1962 p70
Grouping: The Roman High Baroque Grove12 p197
Status: Between 1670 & 1685 he was the most celebrated painter in Rome but with Neo-Classicism his work fell out of favour & his repute was slow to recover Grove12 p203

..GAVARNI, Paul, 1804-1866, France; Victorian Modern Life:

Background: He was born in Paris, as Guillaume Sulpice Chevalier but adopted the pseudonym of Gavarni in 1828 Norman1977

Training: As an architectural apprentice & at the Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers Grove12 p210

Career: In the 1830s he became a fashion-plate artist and caricaturist of the French coquette.  From 1831 he worked for La Caricature & later for Le Charivari, which were owned by the Republican Charles Philippon.   Meanwhile in 1833 he founded his own unsuccessful magazine & spent a year in prison for debt, 1835.   This brought a more serious political and social commitment to his art.   He stayed in England in 1847 & 1851, discovered the wretchedness of its working-class districts,  & published  Gavarnie in London, 1849 Norman1977, Grove12 p210

Oeuvre: He produced around 4000 lithographs & from around 1849 painted watercolours.  Increasingly reclusive he abandoned lithography in 1859 Grove12 pp 209-10

Characteristics/Phases/Reception: His work featured delicate line, beautiful light effects & witty captions.   To begin with the portrayed a cheerful bohemia in which the lower orders & the bourgeoisie still mingled.   He made a speciality of ball & carnival scenes, prints & costumes & fancy dress & portraits of actresses &, during 1841-3, depictions of young women of easy virtue.   However during four years in London from 1847 he turned away from dainty observation of society, toward a deeply sympathetic study of the vice and the suffering of the urban poor as in his ragged Street Sweeper, c1850 (NGArt, Washington).   His line now became more tense & vigorous with greater sense of contrast & movement.   His later work in which the working class confronted the nouveaux riches was not popular Norman1977, Grove12 p210

Circle: Daumier, Jean-Jacques Grandville & Joseph Travies at La Caricature Grove12 p210

Personal: He was elegant, sophisticated & adored women TurnerDtoI Grove12 p210

Status: He was one of the most esteemed artists of the 19^th century & was praised by the critics: Balzac, Gautier, Saint-Beuve, Jules Jamin & the de Goncourt’s Grove12 pp 209-10

GAY, Nikolai, 1831-94, Russia:

Background: Born in Voronyei Norman1977
Training: Studied at the St Petersburg Academy from 1850 Norman1977
Influences: Tolstoy inspired the brutal Realism of his later works Norman1977
Career: Winning a travel scholarship at the St Petersburg Academy he travelled to Italy, and turned to religious painting under Ivanov, whom Gay met in Rome Norman1977
Oeuvre: A religious painter and portraitist Norman1977
Phases: In 1875 he retired to his country estate in the Ukraine, where he studied religion and philosophy and became close to Tolstoy.   Thereafter, his new paintings of Christ combined mysticism with intense Realism. Later paintings showed a wasted, wretched and near-demented Christ Norman1977
Repute: Gay’s tortured, Realist scenes from the life of Christ brought scandal as well as fame Norman1977

 ..GEERTGEN TOT SINT JANS (Little Gerard of the Brethren of St John), c1463-92, Netherlands:

Background: Born Leinden Cuttler p161
Training: Possibly Outwater who was certainly an influence Fuchs p14
Influences: His Man of Sorrows is a response to the heightened emotional outlook of the latter 15^th century which produced the late Gothic Baroque in Germany & appeared in the art of Bosch & the late works of Botticelli Cuttler p165
Career: He lived in Haarlem with the Knights of the Order of St John & painted works for its other monastic orders Cuttler p161
Feature: He sometimes cropped his figures Cuttler p165,  Figs 201-3
Status: He was the best & most famous Dutch painter of the 15^th century Fuchs p14.   His John the Baptist in the Wilderness has the most advanced landscape in 15^th century Flemish painting Cuttler p165
Influenced: Durer Cuttler pp 161, 165  

..GELDER, Aert/Arent de, 1645-1727, Netherlands:

Gellee.   See Claude

..GENELLI, Giovanni, 1798-1868, Germany:

Background: He was born at Berlin & belonged to an artist family Grove12 p273
Training: His uncle Hans Christian Genelli, 1763-1823, who was a porcelain designer & architect, & with Friedrich Bury.   At the Berlin Kunstakademie under Johann Hummel, 1814-9 Grove12 p274
Influences: Asmus Carstens & in Rome antiquity & the High Renaissance Grove12 pp 273-4
Career: In 1822 he went to Rome.   He returned to Leipzig, moved to Munich Grove12 p274
Oeuvre: Paintings, frescoes & drawings Grove12 p274
Phases: Grove12 p274
Characteristics: Paintings on biblical & classical subjects with skilfully arranged figures in a classical style Grove12 p274
Circle: In Rome that around Joseph Koch Grove12 p274

..GENNARI, Benedetto II, the Younger, 1633-1715, Italy=Bologna, England; Baroque

Background: He was born in Cento the son of the painter Ercole Gennari, 1597-1658.   The Gennari Family originated in Cento & comprised the painters Benedetto I, 1563-1658; his sons Ercole, 1597-1661, & Bartolommeo, 1594-1661; together with Ercole’s sons Cesare, 1637-88, & Benedetto II, 1633-1715 Grove12 p279

Training: Guercino in Bologna Grove12 p279
Career: When Guercino’s died, 1666, he directed the family studio with his brother Cesare; went to Paris,1672; & spent 1674-88 in England where he was employed by Charles II, became first painter to James II; worked at his court at St Germain-en-Laye, 1689-92; & returned to Bologna, 1692.  In 1709 he was a founder member of the Bolognese Accademia Clementina Grove12 pp 279-80, Waterhouse1962 p115

 Oeuvre: Mythological & religious pictures of a devotional type for Catherine of Braganza’s Catholic chapel etc, together with portraits Grove12 p279, Waterhouse1962 p115

 Characteristics: His mythological & religious works are of a highly dramatic nature featuring gesturing, oblique figures using marked chiaroscuro, often with silver-white highlights as in his erotic Danae Receiving the Shower of Gold, c1673 (Royal Collection Trust) & The Annunciation, 1686 (Ringling Museum, Sarasota, Florida)

Phases: His early works are stylistically close those of those of Guercino Grove12 p279

Verdict: His portraits were of an intriguingly eccentric style & iconography as in his Portrait of Charles II who is depicted as ugly & somewhat sinister (Old Admiralty Building, Horse Guards Parade, Whitehall) Grove12 p280

Gentile See Da Fabriano

*Artemesia GENTILESCHI, 1593-c1653, Orazio’s daughter, Italy; Baroque:

Background: Born in Rome Grove 12 p306

Training: Her father & Agostino Tassi Grove12 p307

Career: In 1611 Tassi seduced or raped her & during his trial she was tortured by the Pope’s judges to test her account of the rape & then married Pietro Stiattesi, in 1612, moving with him to Florence.  She became the first woman to join the Accademia del Disegno, 1616; returned to Rome,1620; made trips to Genoa & Venice; by 1630 was living in Naples; went to London 1638 where she assisted her father on ceiling paintings; was still in London in 1641; & probably spent most of her late life in Naples   RAMag Spring2020 p21,Grove12 pp 307-8

Oeuvre: Religious paintings, some mythological works & portrait Grove12 pp304-8.

Characteristics/Development: Throughout she concentrated on women heroines & female nudes, & produced dramatic narrative works in which the surfaces of textures & reflections were skilfully rendered.  In these works, particularly those early in her career, she made striking use of light effects, rich & vivid colouring, & chiaroscuro  These works began with an extraordinarily accomplished Susanna & the Elders,1610 (Schloss Weissendtein, Pommersfelden) & were followed [as in] the two versions of Judith Beheading Holofernes c1613-4 (Uffizi, Florence & Capodimonte, Naples), & the two paintings of Judith & the Maidservant with the Head of Holofernes. c1625 & c1615 (Detroit Institute of Arts, & Uffizi, Florence).  She also painted a Jael & Sisera, 1620 (Museum of Fine Arts, Budapest) in which Jael is driving a nail through his head Grove12 p307, Treves etc pp126-7, 132-3, 168-9, etc.  There is only one work of note in which she portrayed an amicable or loving relationship between a man & a woman which is not adulterous, simply lecherous, an act of exploitation, or one that involves Christ or those in his immediate circle, viz Esther before Ahasuerus Treves etc pp194-5, etc.

Verdict: At a time when so much art was no longer the depiction of violence [the work of Artemesia Gentileschi cannot, despite its brilliance, be seen as a contribution to the humanisation of painting.   On the contrary, it formed part of a counter-movement focused on the depiction of Judith & Holofernes where women were engaged in violence &, although this meant that they were no longer seen as passive, & can be viewed as forward looking, there were other less sanguinary ways in which female emancipation was then being shown.  Artemesia is therefore a somewhat curious artist for feminists to celebrate] See the Humanisation of Painting in Section7  

Innovations: Her female figures are the first to have heft, weight & bones Dell p309.

Personal: She was highly ambitious speaking of her desire for glory in her letters.   In a letter to her lover, a Florentine banker, she refers to “all the fruits we have picked in the garden of love” RAMag Spring 2020 p21.

Features: She used Codazzi for architectural & landscape backgrounds L&L

Patronage: Her correspondence is full of attempts to find buyers & suggests she had difficulty making a living Grove2020 p309

Innovation: Unlike other women artists she did not restrict herself to portraits, still-life & small devotional works.   She promoted knowledge of Caravaggio’s style in Florence in the 1610s; Genoa, 1621; & Naples after 1630, where her palette & elaborately painted drapery apparently influenced Massimo Stanzione, Bernardo Cavallino, etc Grove12 pp 307

Status/Legacy: She was the first Italian woman whose work influenced that of other artists Grove12 p306

Repute/Historiography: When Baroque art became unfashionable around 1750, she was forgotten until the Gentileschi’s were rediscovered by Roberto Longhi in 1916.  However, they both continued to be little known & are not for instance mentioned in the 1964 edition Sir William Orpen’s popular Outline of Art.  Only from the mid-1970s  did she become widely known & celebrated Treves etc pp 86, 124.

-Orazio GENTILESCHI, 1563-1639,  Artemesia’s father, Italy, Baroque:

Background: He was born Pisa and his father was a Florentine goldsmith Grove12 p304
Influences: Caravaggio’s earlier work, which were described as light play on smooth fabrics.  Tuscanism, especially in palette and he had a fond liking for prettiness  L&L, OxDicArt, Waterhouse1962 p35; Santi di Tito and other Florentine painters for their clarity and restraint Grove12 p304
Career: From about 1577 he was in Rome and probably intended to become goldsmith.  He turned to painting in his 20s without much training Grove12 p304. From c1611-15 he painted Caravaggesque masterpieces Grove12 p305;  Between 1621-3 he spent time in Genoa and lived in Paris from 1623-5.  Here he was a court painter to Charles I, until his death L&L, OxDicArt  He became lazy and often repeating a handful of previous designs Waterhouse1962 p35
Oeuvre: There were around 80 known paintings and frescos; not a prolific artist Grove12 p306
Phases: Early work was in Mannerist style OxDicArt. Caravaggesque tenebrism until c1625, by using a more lyrical, refined style with graceful and stately figures (Tuscan heritage) L&L, OxDicArt
Characteristics: Clear with precise contours including light and cold blues, yellows and violets.  Created restrained and simple compositions using lyricism Wittkower1973 pp 73-4. Then from about 1600 he turned to smooth contours on surfaces, with sharp-edged but shallow drapery folds. He painted faces in profile Grove12 p304
Friends: He was close to Caravaggio RAMagazine, Spring 2020 p21
Influence: He was important as the transmitter of a watered Caravaggesque style to several European courts Waterhouse1962 p35
Repute: He was sadly neglected by scholars until Roberto Longhi in 1916 Grove12 p306

– Baron Francois-Pascal GERARD, confusable with Girodet & Guerin 1770-1837; Neoclassical:

Background: He was born in Rome where he spent much of his childhood Grove12 p334
Training: The Pension du Roi after the family’s move to Paris, 1782; then sculpture; painting under Nicolas-Guy Brenet; & David’s pupil.1786 Grove12 p334
Influences: Gros for current history painting Grove 12 p335
Career: After returning to Rome & became David’s assistant around 1791; produced illustrations to make money; won praise in 1795 for Isabel & his daughter at the Salon [as in] (Louvre); became France’s the most fashionable portrait painter; & won commissions from Napoleon & his family culminating in Napoleon in His Imperial Robes, 1805 (Chateau, Versailles); became Premier Peintre to Louis XVIII, 1817,  & was soon ennobled Grove12 pp 334-5.
Oeuvre: Portraits, history paintings both historic & contemporary, mythological works, a fantasy painting & occasional religious works Grove12 pp 334–5
Characteristics/Phases/Verdict: At the height of his success his characterisation of sitters was brilliant with free brushwork & superb control of tone as in Mme Lecerf, 1704 (Louvre).   However, over-production often led latterly to mere elegance & triviality Grove12 pp 335-6, Friedlaender1930 pp 40-1.  His mature mythology as in Psyche Receiving Cupid’s First Kiss, 1798 (Louvre) has been described as precious & displaying sultry eroticism & grace.  It has a clarity, definition, & soft colouring distancing it from the work of David: a revival of nearly everything Neoclassical artists had condemned in Rococo art in a superficial neoclassical manner Grove12 pp 334-5, Friedlaender1930 pp 39-41, Honour1978 p171, webimages.

-Marguerite GERARD, 1761-1837:

Background: She was born at Grasse but after her mother’s death joined her sister, Fragonard’s wife, in their quarters in the Louvre Grove12 p336
Training: Fragonard Grove12 p336
Career: After the Revolution she exhibited at the Salon Grove12 p336
Oeuvre: Genre paintings & portraits Grove12 p336
Characteristics/Innovations/Status: She was the first woman to establish herself as a genre painter, & she represents a major undercurrent in early 19^th century art by painting carefully executed paintings of women in minor domestic dramas in wealthy middle-class interiors accompanied by pets & servants.  Her ability to reproduce texture & surfaces & her glittering palette of silvery colours enhanced by glazes made her genre unique Grove12 p236, R&J p74
Feature: She was not Fragonard’s lover Grove12 p336

Alexander GERASIMOV, 1881-1963, Russia; Socialist Realism:

Background: He was born at Kozlov now Michurinsk.   His father was a cattle dealer OxDicMod

Training: 1903-15 at the Moscow School of Painting Sculpture &  Architecture under Arkhipov, Nikolay Kasatkin, Konstantin Korovin, etc.  He led a group of traditionalists who opposed Mikhail Larionov’s  avant-garde  OxDicMod, Grove12 p339

Career: He served in the army.  After the Revolution dismayed at avant-garde dominance in Moscow,  he returned to Kozlov where he  became a stage designer.   In 1925 he settled in Moscow.   His friendship with the Red Army chief Voroshilov assisted his career.   During 1947-1957 he was President  of the Academy of Arts.   He dominated the USSR Union of Artists & was implacably hostile to advanced art.  After the war & the brief artistic thaw he published an article in January 1949 in which he accused a group of critics, nearly all Jewish, of a lack of respect for Ruso-Soviet culture, & at the conference of the Academy of Arts denounced roughly the same group of being rootless cosmopolitans & aestheticizing anti-patriots.  This led to critics being expelled from the artists union & banned from publishing.   Gerasimov’s article appeared long before the so-called Doctors’ Plot in which Jewish Doctors were accused of killing leading political figures.   Following  Khruschev’s 20^th  Congress speech he complained angrily to him that artist had painted Stalin in good faith, their pictures being an honest response to the times.   An Academy of Arts delegation bullied him into resigning  the presidency.   He drank a bottle of vodka & had a heart-attack OxDicMod, Bown 1991 pp 28, 226, Skira p84, Wikip.

Oeuvre: Works glorifying the Soviet Union & its leaders, landscapes, townscapes. seascapes, still life, history paintings, nudes & portraits Webimages, etc

Characteristics: His style as in Lenin on the Tribune, 1929 (State Historical Museum, Moscow) combined academic realism & Impressionism & remained almost unchanged from the mid-1920s as in Lenin on the Tribune, 1929 (State Historical Museum, Moscow).   It typifies the solemn, heroic realism which was later considered a paradigm of Socialist Realism.  He went on to paint a series of imposing official portraits of Soviet leaders as in Stalin & Voroshilov in the Kremlin, 1938 (Tretyakov).   However his [as in] Summer Rain at Noon (Russian Museum) is a more appealing & lyrical work Grove12 p339

Feature: In the late 1930s in a marked departure from his works celebrating the regime he produced a series of paintings of erotic female nudes in a banyan as in A Russian Communal Bath, 1938 (Private) Bown1991 pp 61, 50, 113, & Bown1989  p18, Swanson p101.

Status: He was the artist most closely associated with the Party line during the Stalin era Swanson p101

Verdict: He was sinister & evil.  When a picture showing officers came back from a 1937 International Exhibition he put it under the carpet.   Some of  them had  been purged OxDicMod

..Sergi GERASIMOV, 1885-1964, no relation of Alexander, Russia:

Background: He was born at Mozhaisk Bown p241

Training: Until 1912 at the Moscow College of Painting, Sculpture & Architecture Bown p241

Career: During 1922-5 he was a member of Makovets.   This was a group that believed in a return to traditional values & that an artistic renaissance was impossible without following on from  the great masters of the past).   He was a leading member of the Society of Moscow Artists or OMKh, 1926-9 Bown pp 32, 43.   Gerasimov became head of painting at the Moscow section of the Union of Artists (MOSSKh) & was it chairman from 1939 to 52 Bown pp 86, 241.   At its poisonous 1937 meeting he was one of the few artists to emerge with any credit.   He regretted that questions of creative practice, rather than ideology, were not longer the hub of its activity Bown pp 132-4.   His landscape Winter, 1939, is a departure from Social Realism & his mother of a Partisan, 1943 (Tretyakov, Moscow) was attacked for impressionism in a covert move against the Moscow Artists’ Union of which he was chairman, 1939-52.   This had a broad-based membership & semi-democratic election    He had wide artistic sympathies & was the most influential liberal voice in the art bureaucracy Bown pp 16, 116, 163, 215-6, Swanson p101, Skira p72.   From 1958 to 64 he was First Secretary of the USSR Union of Artists.   He taught at a number of Moscow artistic institutions during 1920-9 & 1930-50, in particular at the Moscow Polygraphed Institute of which he became the director Bown p241

Oeuvre: Painter of landscapes & thematic pictures; also book illustrations Bown p241

Characteristics: At least some of his work was of Impressionist nature as in Collective Farm Festival, 1937 (Tretyakov, Moscow).   However his Mother of a Partisan does not have broken Impressionist brushwork Skira pp 72, 140

Feature: The Partisan painting exemplifies the way in which the Russians coped with the Nazi invasion.   The woman’s feet are firmly planted on the ground of the homeland & she gazes stolidly, even defiantly,  at the German soldier Skira pp 72, 200

Status/Grouping: He was among the Moscow landscapists who did not want to paint Socialist Realism but were patriotic & happy to work in the traditional formal values insisted upon during the 1930s.   Other artists of this type included Aleksandr Mokoros & Kuprin Bown1991 p116

**GERICAULT, Theodore, 1791-1824, France:

Background: He was born at Rouen into a provincial middle-class family, newly enriched but uncultured TurnerDtoI p193.

Training: He was at Carle Vernet’s studio until 1810 but did not have systematic teaching.   He then studied under Pierre Guerin but his period of regular training only lasted about six months TurnerDtoI p193

Influences: Rubens, Gros & Michelangelo L&L.   His experiences in Britain affected him deeply, he sought out the company of artists, looked at Wikie’s Chelsea Pensioners Reading the Gazette then in progress, & discovered there was an alternative to the grand French tradition R&J p121     

Career: In 1809 he inherited a comfortable annuity from his mother TurnerDtoI p193.   He made a strong debut at the Salon of 1812 with his Officer of the Imperial Guard.   During 1816-7 he was in Italy.   After his return, he found a theme with which to make his mark in a contemporary book which revealed ministerial mismanagement & injustice.   The resulting Raft of the Medusa was received with awe but  much criticism when shown at the Salon of 1819.    In 1820 he crossed the Channel & earned fame & money when the painting was exhibited in London, Edinburgh & Dublin.   During his London stay he produced notable street scenes.    Back in Paris he painted ten portraits of insane men & women, of which five survive.   He also turned to Orientalism but his health rapidly deteriorated after a riding accident L&L, OxDicArt, Novotny pp 147, 149

Oeuvre: It was diverse beginning with  Napoleonic war paintings &ending with drawings for projected modern life subjects Grove 12 pp349-54

Characteristics: His handling of paint was energetic, he loved stirring action & the depiction of swirling movement, & had a taste for the macabre OxDicArt.  Colour is nearly always confined to chiaroscuro effects with abundant greys & browns which are nearly a colour on their own account Novotny p151

Politics: He belonged to Vernet’s pro-Napoleon & anti-restoration circle Craske pp 54-6.   There is no doubt about the Medusa’s political intent R&Z p41

Innovations: He depicted anonymous & disorganised masses of men engaged in a chaotic struggle.   They contrast with the Napoleonic paintings in which war is simplified into the representation of the hero & victory Novotny pp 28-9.  Gericault undermined the hierarchy of genres in his search for a  personal & immediate mode of expression (See Medusa, Madwoman, Severed Limbs) R&Z pp 39-41

Personal: He was a passionate horseman & joined a cavalry regiment.   In his life-style & temperament he was an archetypal Romantic artist.   He struggled & suffered for his art, unable to work by day & relax in the evening.   When painting The Raft of the Medusa he only left his studio to, for instance, study the expressions of dying men in Parisian hospitals.   He did not care about commercial success, his journal contains monk-like vows of abstinence, & he shaved his hair to deter ladies who might be attracted by his good looks  OxDicArt, Craske pp53-4, 56-8.

Legacy: Delacroix, who knew Gericault from 1817, could be called his disciple & took his Orientalism further.  Courbet & other Realists regarded him as their master L&L

-GEROME, Jean-Leon, 1824-1904, France; Academic Movement

Background: His father was a prosperous goldsmith-jeweller ThompsonJ p88

Training: At the studio of Delaroche in Paris, 1840-3, & later briefly by Gleyre Grove12 p486, ThompsonJ p88

Influences: Ingres Grove12 p487

Career: In 1844 he went to Italy with Delaroche where he was impressed by Pompeii.  He made a successful debut at the Salon in 1846 with the [as in] Cock Fight (Louvre) which was highlighted by the prominent critic Theophile Gautier.  However, he failed to gain the Prix de Rome Grove12 pp 486-7. During 1853 he visited the Balcans; spent six months in a boat on the Nile in 1856,  & between  1862 & 1874 returned to the Near East & also visited Constantinople & Asia Minor in 1871 & 1875, but did not go to Algeria ThompsonJ p88, Nochlin1989B p ???  In 1863 Gerome married Marie Goupil & he became a professor at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts, ThompsonJ p88.   He was an influential enemy of progressive trends & opposed the acceptance by the state of Caillebotte’s bequest of Impressionist works OxDicArt.   He was fascinated by large cats, had a Managerie in the1880s & 90s, & hunted big game in North Africa Museum of Fine Arts, Boston

Oeuvre: Paintings including oil on plaster & sculpture Grove12 pp 486-88, Art Renewal Center on web

Subject Matter: It was extraordinarily wide.  It ranged from conventional academic works such as Anacreon, Bacchus, Amor, 1848 (Musee Augustin’s, Toulouse) to a modern life subject Duel after the Masked Ball, 1857 (Museum Conde, Chantilly).  He also painted landscapes, non-Oriental nudes, & a powerful innovative [as in] religious work, Jerusalem, 1867 (Musee d’Orsay).  Yet another topic was the myth of Pygmalion & Galatea, 1890 (The MET).  He also painted portraits Ackerman pp 28-31, 78-9, 124, 149; web images

Artistic Development: In 1855, after the public failure of the Age of Augustus, Gerome turned away from conventional & frozen action pictures.   With his [as in]1859 Death of Caesar (Walters Art Museum, Baltimore) & a lost Caesar picture, he aimed at a history painting in which, to quote Gulru Cask Mak, it was the artist’s intention “to stimulate in the viewer an almost corporeal fantasy of entering the depicted scene… & given the possibility to imagine entering the picture & moving inside”.   This was not however a new type of history painting but a revival of works of a travers du cadre type, where the viewer has the illusion of being able to step through the frame into the alternative world.   This was not however a new type of history painting but a revival of works of a travers du cadre type, where the viewer has the illusion of being able to step through the frame into the alternative world beyond, that were painted in the 18^th century by Denis Diderot A&M pp 68-77 (especially pp 72-3) & see a travers du cardre, Section 6.  His first [as in] picture of new dramatic type featuring a scene in a Roman arena, Ave Caesar!  Morituri Te Saltant (Yale University Art Gallery) also appeared in 1859 & the series continued until at least 1883 A&M p56, Pl 4, Wikip

Characteristics/Technique : An important feature of Gerome’s oeuvre, whether it be arena paintings or genre work, is the skilful use which he often made of rich colour & chiaroscuro.  This enhances the drama of his ancient world scenes & which makes his Oriental genre, bath scenes & landscapes pleasing as in Circus Maximus, 1876 (Art Institute, Chicago) & The Carpet Merchants, 1887 (Minneapolis Institute of Arts) Ackerman pp 45, 49, 53-7, 64-71, 74-5, 77, 81-83, 89, 92-3, 97-103, 105-7, 109-114, 115-6, 118-23, 127, 129, 132.133-39, 151, 155, 165-68, 170, 177, 179.  Gerome’s works are very highly finished without visible brushstrokes.  This he achieved by means of glazing.  He made oil sketches on the spot even when worn out after long, hot marches but obviously was partly reliant on memory Wikip

Orientalism: This is said to feature strange & exotic punishments & torture Nochlin1989B p52.   However, these are not a feature of Gerome’s work & most of his paintings are a genre nature or are landscapes as in Camels at the Trough, 1857 (NG Canada Ottawa), &  the [as in] Fallah Women drawing Water, 1870 Sterling & Francine Clark Institute, Williamstown, Massachusetts) Ackerman pp 44, 47-48, 50-51, 81, 89, 96, 99, 101, 107,111-113, 119, 121, 129-31, 141, 150-51, 154, 165, 174.

A further batch of paintings feature religious observance & are in no way derogatory to the Muslim religion [which, on the contrary, he appears to view it in an over-favourable light] Ackerman 68-71, 95, 109, 157, 166-68, 170-71.  His Orientalist paintings also include dancing girls (Almebs), Turkish Irregulars who supposedly plundered (Arnauts), & Hamman or bath scenes.   However, when these works are examined, they turn out to be innocuous or in the case of the bath scenes mildly erotic ThompsonJ p89, Ackerman pp 44-46, 64, 92, 97, 101, 121, 134-9, 155.

Linda Nochlin takes great exception to Gerome’s [as in]  Snake Charmer, late 1860s, (Clarke Institute).  Nochlin 1989B p  She accuses him of  concealing the evidence of his touch & in making us forget by a plethora of authenticating details that his picture is actually a work of art, consisting of paint on canvas, & this to a wholly unprecedented extent Nochlin 1989B pp 37-38  [This is a truly ridiculous claim which would damn Vermeer].

Her more serious accusation is that the Snake Charmer is “a visual document of nineteenth century colonialist ideology”.  According to Nochlin, the Muslim world is being viewed as a picturesque, magical & unchanging backward region inhabited by a lazy & slothful population in which there is an absence of scenes of work & industry Nochlin1989B  pp 38-9.  This not only disregards his [as in] Treading out the Grain in Egypt, 1859 (Private)  & the Fellah Women but also the fact that so many of his works are genre scenes of activity & depict those who are earning a living as in his Carpet Merchants: a cavalier disregard of paintings only explicable by her enthusiasm to show that Orientalism paved the way for a colonialist take-over which was what, as she rightly, but irrelevantly, points out happened in Algeria Nochlin1998B pp 34-5, 37-8, Zeldin2 p927. 

Feature: Gerome’s arena paintings & many of his other works show an audience looking at a scene beheld by the actual viewers.  They could therefore both take delight in the reprehensible scene & condemn what was happening See A&M p44

Among Gerome’s other Orientalist paintings there is nevertheless one work which is highly critical of the Muslim world, namely the [as in] Slave Market, 1866 (Sterling & Francine Clark Art Institute) which depicts a beautiful & naked young woman having her teeth examined by her potential purchaser prior to her sale.  The condemnation was wholly appropriate because of the persistence of slavery in the Muslim lands, & slavery was a practice he had already condemned in his non-Orientalist  paintings of the ancient world Ackerman pp 54-55; See Orientalism in Section 7

Innovations: Hitherto History Painting had focused on human protagonists, one of whom was central, but Gerome in his [as in] Death of Caesar dispersed it across the canvas with its diverse figures & inanimate objects.   This is because the painting is a retrospective view of a crime scene, though not entirely so because of the fleeing senators.   Nevertheless, there has been a switch from an exemplum virtutis with its central hero to an eyewitness report.   The viewer is invited to see through the eyes of the senator who has remained seated &, it should be noted, is wide-awake.   [The picture differs not only from conventional, frozen history paintings but also from works which have a metaphysical or allegorical meaning.   Gerome’s objects are resolutely prosaic but his work can be given substance by reading the clues] Ackerman  71, 74, 85-6, 89.

Teaching: Over 2000 students received at least some of their art education through his atelier at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts.  He was a dedicated & conscientious, incisive teacher.   However, he was intolerant of those who lacked energy &, unlike Chabanel, he failed to recognise students’ individual requirements Wikip, FoxS p74.

Status: By 1880 Gerome was arguably the world’s most famous living artist A&M p42

Patronage: Goupil promoted his pictures & secured foreign sales.  In total 114 paintings were sold  to American buyers, nearly a quarter of his output  ThompsonJ p88; Wikip

Grouping/Circle: The success of the Cock Fight encouraged his fellow students, who were termed Neo-Greeks or Pompeiians, to paint similar frivolous & sexy pictures of antiquity.   Hamon, Boulanger & Bouguereau belonged to this group ThompsonJ p88

Reception: During his lifetime Gerome was greeted with official & popular recognition.   However, he also encountered early critical hostility with his work being seen as trivial vulgar kitsch.   In 1867 Zola attacked Gerome as a cynical manufacturer of anecdotal images for mass reproduction & popular consumption.   He was also criticised for cropping by Paul Mantz, A&M pp 1-2, 68.

Repute:   After his death, Gerome’s work was for a long period treated with critical derision or was simply ignored ThompsonJ p88, Leymarie.   It was castigated as being vulgarly anecdotal & hopelessly academic A&M p2.   However, from around 1972 Gerald Ackerman, Albert Biome & other critics began treating Gerome seriously, & it was this, together with Edward Said’s book Orientalism, that explain  Nochlin’s renewed attack S&M pp 2-3, Nochlin1989 pp xix, 33-4.

Legacy: Enrico Guazzoni’s landmark epic Quo Vadis, 1912; & Ridley Scott’s blockbuster Gladiator S&M p57

..GERSON, Adalbert, 1831-1901, Poland:

Background: Born Warsaw Grove12 p490
Training: The School of Fine arts, Warsaw, 1844-50;  the St Peterburg Academy, 1853-5; & briefly under Cogniet in Paris Grove12 p490
Career: He settled in Warsaw in 1858 where he was an influential teacher & art critic Norman1977.   In 1860 Gerson helped set up the Society for the Encouragement of Fine Art, which was the first exhibition-organising body in Warsaw.   He became a Professor at the School of Fine Arts where he led the drawing class until 1896.   Gerson believed it to be the foundation of art & discouraged copying & imitation Grove12 p490
Oeuvre: History paintings; landscapes; genre; portraits; religious subjects; murals; illustrations; stage costumes & settings Grove12 p490, Norman 1977
Phases: During the 1850s he made landscape & genre studies during sketching trips with students.   After 1863 he produced large-scale, patriotic scenes from history & from 1885 striking mountain landscapes in the Tatras Grove12 p490
Characteristics: His Tatra landscapes show his concern with light & the contribution of detail to overall atmosphere, as in his record of weather conditions Grove12 p490
Innovations: He depicted the female nude at a time when this was rare in Poland Grove12 p490
Pupils: He taught several of the leading Polish impressionists Norman1977
Innovations: He depicted the female nude at a time when this was rare in Poland Grove12 p490
Pupils: He taught several of the leading Polish impressionists Norman1977

*GERTLER, Mark, 1891-1939, England:

Background: He was born in Spitalfields, London.   His parents were poor Polish Jews but the family returned to Galicia during 1893-8, & then lived in poverty in the East End until his father’s workshop became moderately successful.  He only spoke Yiddish until he was eight Grove 12 p493, Rothenstein p443, OxDicArt. 

Training: After art classes at the Regent Street Polytechnic he went with aid from the Jewish Educational Aid Society to the Slade & was taught by Henry Tonks & Philip Steer, 1908-12 Rothenstein p450, Grove12 p493. 

Influences: He had an early narrow & isolated upbringing which provided his early work with an emotional focus & intensity.  Gertler made a close study of Picasso was influenced & also by Derain, Matisse, Renoir, Cezanne; Rothenstein p452-53, L&L

Career: He decided to become an artist after seeing a poster for beef extract & still-lifes by a pavement artist & then reading Frith’s autobiography at a bookshop.   He gained quick recognition & after the Slade was elected to NEAC, & joined the London Group in 1915.  In 1915 he moved to Hampstead Rothenstein pp 449, 455, 460,  OxDicArt

Personal: During his childhood he had fits of depression probably intensified by sleep deprivation.  The success of this slum boy with his extraordinary talent resulted in an exorbitant sociability but to greater excitement & gratification than happiness with back-stabbing banter leading to growing isolation & insecurity.  He fell in love with Dora Carrington but her fondness was soured by his desire for total possession & reluctance to commit himself.  During his later years he was still gay in company but suffered from recurring & deepening depression.  This was aggravated by ill health including tuberculosis from 1920 which necessitated long periods in sanatoria.  Depressed at his lack of success he committed suicide which he had long been contemplating Rothenstein pp 449, 463-64, 456-8, Grove12 p493

Oeuvre: Still life, nudes, landscapes & portraits, etc Grove 12 p493

Aim: “to paint a picture in which I hope to express all the sorrows of life” Grove12 p493

Characteristics/Phases: He had a precocious ability with paint as shown in [his as in] Artist’s Mother 1911 especially by her hands.  Another [as in] work that must be mentioned, also inspired by his East End Jewish background & painted in sombre tones is The Jewish Family,1913 (both Tate Gallery).  From around 1914 his works became less realistic, more impersonal with simplified & forms using robust colours as his sinister work The Roundabout, 1916  (Tate Gallery) which is a mechanistic nightmare reflecting his hatred of war.  His work became gentler during the 1920s using subtle colour as in his erotic & fleshy Queen of Sheba, 1922 (Tate) Rothenstein pp 450-1, 453-5, Grove12 p493

Circle: At the Slade he led the Neo-Primatives, a modernist coterie which included Christopher Nevinson, Stanley Spencer, Edward Wadsworth, John Currie.   [They wore semi-uniforms, roamed Soho looking for trouble, & were inspired by Ruskin, the early Italians, & also the Pre-Raphaelites who were still regarded as an ongoing movement].  Although he was not an intellectual like Duncan Grant or Paul Nash he moved in intellectual circles & at Garlington the home of Lady Ottoline Morrell mixed with artist, & writers such as D. H. Lawrence & Aldous Huxley Grove12 p493, Harrison p65

Patrons: William Rothenstein & Edward Marsh Grove12 p493

..GESSNER, Salomon, 1733-88, Switzerland; Romantic Naturalism

Background: Born Zurich, the son of a book seller & publisher Grove12 pp 499-500.
Training: He was self-taught Grove12 p499
Influences: In 1746 he went to Berg am Irchel where he became aware of the healing effect of landscape.   He was influenced by the pastoral settings of Poussin, Claude & Gaspard Dughet.   His first sketches from nature were inspired by the pastoral lyrics of Barthold Hinrich Brockes Grove12 pp499-500, Brigstocke
Career: He began an apprenticeship at a bookshop in Berlin, 1749, but decided to devote himself to landscape painting & etching, returned to Zurich, 1751;  joined the Dienstags-Compagnie, a discussion & social group of young men who in the summer met at a vineyard clubhouse at Selnau.   Here they became enraptured by Natuschwarmerei, nature enchantment.    He wrote poetry & an influential critique of civilisation, Der Tod Abels, 1758.  The previous year he had married against fierce opposition.   In 1780 he began publishing & editing the Zuricher Zeitung Wikip, Grove12 p499, Hempel p248.
Oeuvre: Paintings, etchings, illustrations, poetry & prose Grove12 p499-500 Grove12 p499.
Oeuvre:  Paintings in oils, gouache & watercolour webimages
Phases/Characteristics/Innovations: After an abortive attempt at fantasy landscape around 1750, he  made nature studies from the hilly landscape of eastern Switzerland & his first free-standing watercolour & gouache landscapes, mostly in a portrait configuration, were made during 1777-81.   Here picturesque streams, woodland scenes & overgrown orchards, etc were transformed into Arcadian landscapes usually populated by dryads, nymphs, satyrs, etc, as in Arcadian Music, 1781, & in The Wood, 1784 (both Kunsthaus, Zurich).    After 1784 he mostly used a horizontal format & in The Wood, & especially in his works in gouache, employed glazed shades of green to produce an effect of colour flooded with light, & in Arcadian Music the colour contrasts indicate an inward experience of nature which he perceived as a harmony of opposites.   He anticipated 19^th century realist & Romantic landscape & some of his late work , such as Arcadian Landscape with an Obelisk, 1785 (The Met) [is Corot-like.   His work is life-enhancing] Grove12 pp 499-500, Hempel p248, webimages.
Status: He was the first of the German poet-painters [& through his life & work  he was an outstanding & quintessential example of a painter who belonged to the early Romantic era] Hempel p248
Son: (Johann) Konrad, 1764-1826 was a painter & etcher Grove12 pp 500-1

 *GERSTL, Richard, 1883-1908, Austria:

Background: Born Vienna into a wealthy family so that he had no need to earn a living  OxDicMod
Training: Vienna Academy L&L
Influences: French art in Viennese exhibitions, Kokoshka & Expressionism L&L.   Klimt’s decorative linearity & colourism OxDicArt, OxDicMod
Career: He helped Schoenberg to paint, Gerstl eloped with his wife; she returned to Schoenberg & Gerstl committed suicide L&L
Phases: His early work was like that of the Vienna Secession, but by 1905 it was a highly personal Expressionism OxDicArt, OxDicMod
Oeuvre: Mainly portraits L&L
Characteristics: His work was intensely emotional & Expressionistic to the point of seeming incompetent, even mad, with violent abbreviations of form & an amazing impasto technique L&L, OxDicArt
Verdict: His few finished paintings are unforgettable examples of an intensely personal Expressionism Hamilton1967 p330
Personal: He was a tormented character OxDicMod
Repute: Only in the 1930s did his work become widely known OxDicMod

Sergi GERASIMOV, 1885-1964, no relation of Alexander, Russia:

Background: He was born at Mozhaisk Bown p241
Training: -1912 at the Moscow College of Painting, Sculpture & Architecture Bown p241
Career: During 1922-5 he was a member of Makovets.   This was a group that believed in a return to traditional values & that an artistic renaissance was impossible without following on from  the great masters of the past).   He was a leading member of the Society of Moscow Artists or OMKh, 1926-9 Bown pp 32, 43.   Gerasimov became head of painting at the Moscow section of the Union of Artists (MOSSKh) & was it chairman from 1939 to 52 Bown pp 86, 241.   At its poisonous 1937 meeting he was one of the few artists to emerge with any credit.   He regretted that questions of creative practice, rather than ideology, were not longer the hub of its activity Bown pp 132-4.   His landscape Winter, 1939, is a departure from Social Realism & in 1949 Mother of a Partisan was attacked for impressionism in a covert move against the Moscow Artists’ Union of which he was chariman, 1939-52.   This   had a broad-based membership & semi-democratic elections    He had broad artistic sympathies & was the most influential liberal voice in the art bureaucracy Bown pp 16, 116, 163, 215-6, Swanson p101 .   From 1958 to 64 he was First Secretary of the USSR Union of Artists.   He taught at a number of Moscow artistic institutions during 1920-9 & 1930-50, in particular at the Moscow Polygraphic Institute of which he became the director Bown p241
Oeuvre: Painter of landscapes & thematic pictures; also book illustrations Bown p241
Status/Grouping: He was among the Moscow landscapists who did not want to paint Socialist Realism but were patriotic & happy to work in the traditional formal values insisted upon during the 1930s.   Other artists included Aleksandr Mozoroz & Kuprin Bown1991 p116

..GERVEX, Henri, 1852-1929, France:

Background:  He was born in Paris Grove12 p495
Training: Pierre Brisset & then at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts under Alexandre Cabanal & informally with Fromentin Grove12 p496
Career: His first Salon exhibit was in 1873.   He was a founder-member of the Societe Nationaledes Beaux-Arts Grove12 p496
Oeuvre: Paintings & murals of a wide range of subjects including his speciality the nude in modern & mythological settings, doctors demonstrating their skills & appliances, dock workers, the poor queuing for state assistance, & paintings of the Great War. etc Grove12 p496
Characteristics: He had exceptional facility & produced bravura works in which there usually large areas of warm & attractive colour featuring pink, cream & light blue together with contrasting but not conflicting dark hues Grove12 p496, Celobonovic pp 68.,126, 155, webimages
Circle: He had an agreeable personality & a wide range of friends including Renoir, Manet, Degas, & Guy de Maupassant Grove12 p496
Reception: He was enormously popular & honoured Grove12 p496
Pupil: Jacques Emile-Blanche Grove12 p496

-Marcus GHEERAERTS, the Elder, c1520-90, Younger’s father, married  de Critz’s sister, Flanders:

Background: He was born at Bruges, the son of the painter Egbert -1521 & stepson of Simon Pieters Grove12 p513
Training: In Bruges Brigstocke
Career: He entered the Bruges Guild of St Luke in 1558, was banished in 1568 for his religious beliefs, moved to London but returned in 1577 Brigstocke,  L&L
Oeuvre: Paintings & etchings Grove12 pp 513-4
Innovations: He used the new technique of etching to produce prints that are much more detailed & expressive than engravings Grove12 p514

-Marcus GHEERAERTS, the Younger, C1561-1635, the Elder’s son; he married  de Critz’s younger sister & his  own sister married  Oliver: England

Background: He was born in Bruges Brigstocke
Training: By his father & the Flemish-born Lucas de Heere in London.   He received many commissions from the court,& Sir Henry Lee was his first important English patron.   He was also patronised by Anne of Denmark until 1617  Brigstocke, Grove12 pp 514-5
Influences: Frans Pourbus the Elder & the Antwerp School Grove12 p514
Career: In 1568 he came to England with his father L&L; popularity declined c1615 OxDicArt, Waterhouse1953 p42
Oeuvre/Characteristics: His portraits, of which 30 are known, show sitters in richly embroidered clothes, often decorated with expensive lace but have an atmospheric quality which distinguishes them from contemporary work.  They depart  from the firmly two-dimensional & linear paintings of Nicholas Hilliard & Robert Peake, like those of Isaac Oliver & Cornelius Jonson, were the first to convey sweet melancholy.   Anne of Denmark was depicted more as a real woman than a queen in his Woburn Abbey portrait, c1607.   He was unable to place his figures entirely convincingly in the picture space but latterly his colouring was very sensitive & delicate Grove12 pp 514-5.        
Innovations: He was one of the few painters in the Stuart period who sitters occasionally smile gently, & he painted a lady dressed as a Persian maid Grove12 p515
Status: He was the leading late Elizabethan painter L&L

– Jacob/Jacques DE GHEYN III, 1596-1641, Netherlands=The Hague

Background: He was probably born in Amsterdam, the son of Jacques II Grove12 p532
Influences: The tenebrism style of Adam Elsheimer & Hendrik Goudt Grove12 p532
Career: He like his father worked for the court in the Hague & was later in Utrecht where he became canon of St Mariakerk.   He was in England in 1618 with Constantin the Elder, & in 1620 he went to Sweden L&L, Grove12 p532
Oeuvre: Engravings & possibly paintings Grove12 p532
Speciality: Mythological subjects & still-life featuring books OxDicArt, L&L
Characteristics: His etchings display a dramatic treatment of light & dark Grove12 p532
Phases: He produced little after 1629 Grove12 pp 529, 532

Gheyn.   See de Gheyn

-GHIKA, Nikolas, 1906-94, Greece:

Background: He was born in Athens, the son of Princess Eleni Ghika OxDicMod, Wikip
Training: In 1922 he entered the Sorbonne to study literature but mainly concentrated on art at the Academie Branson under Bissiere OxDicMod
Influences: Braque & Picasso, magical elements from Surrealism & after his return to Greece Mediterranean landscape & Greek popular art OxDicMod
Career: He lived in Paris until 1934.  In 1942 he became a professor at the University in Athens where he remained until he retired.  He became an RA in 1986 OxDicMod, L&L, Wikip
Oeuvre: Paintings and graphic art OxDicMod
Characteristics: He combined his country’s ancient traditions & contemporary artistic forms to produce complex decorative works including landscapes, townscapes & interiors OxDicMod, L&L,webimages
Status: From the late 1930s he was recognised as Greece’s major painter OxDicMod

 *** Domenico GHIRLANDAIO/BIGORDI, c1448-94, Ridofo’s father, Italy=Florence:

GHISLANDI, Giuseppe,  See  FRA GALGARIO, 1655-1743, Italy:

-GHISOLFI, Giovanni, 1623-8, Italy=Milan; Baroque

Background: Born Milan Grove12 p560
Training: With his uncle Antonio Volpino Grove12 p560
Influences: Pietro da Cortona’s works in Rome Grove12 p560
Career: He went to Rome where he frequented the studio of Salvator Rosa, returned to Lombardy; frescoed a chapel at the Cortosa di Pavia with the Legends of St Benedict; established a reputation for landscapes with architecture & ancient ruins; & worked at Varese outside Milan where he covered the vaults of Basilica of Vittore with airy frescoes depicting the Legends & Glory of St Victor Grove12 p560
Oeuvre: Frescoes & oils Grove12 p560
Innovation: He was the first Italian artist to specialise in imaginary scenic views of Roman ruins, namely vedute ideate, as in the well composed & highly picturesque Landscape with Ruins & Figures (NG Scotland, Edinburgh) L&L, Grove12 p560, webimage
Legacy: He anticipated & inspired Panini’s work L&L

**Alberto GIACOMETTI, 1901-66, Giovanni’s son, Switzerland:

-Augusto GIACOMETTI, 1877-1947, Giovanni’s second cousin Switzerland:

– GIACOMETTI, Giovanni, 1868-1933, Switzerland; Impressionism

Background: He was the son of a baker who ran a cafe Wikip
Training: At the Kunstgewerbeschule, Munich, 1886-7, & under Bouguereau & Robert-Fluery at the Academie Julian until 1891 Wikip
Influences: His mentor Giovanni Seganantini who introduced him to mountain scenery Wikip
Career: He went to Rome, 1893; befriended Giovanni Segantini, 1894; in 1904 moved to the mountian village of Borgonovo; & exhibited at the Berlin Secession, 1911 Wikip
Oeuvre: Landscape paintings, genre scenes & book illustrations Wikip
Characteristics: His work is pleasing, colourful & careful with an emphasis on modulation & textures Wikip, webimages
Grouping: He has been regarded as a divisionist & Post-Impressionist etc [but is better regarded as an Impressionist] Wikip, webimages
Son: Alberto, 1901-1966, was primarily a sculptor but also produced paintings of figures in a greyish colour.  They are dusty looking, tentative, half-finished appearance & convey a ghostly feeling OxDicMod, L&L, webimages
Second Cousin: Augusto, 1877-1947.  He was an abstract painter noted for works which are all-over manifestations of light & colour & abstract variations of Old Master paintings L&L

Giovanni, Benvenuto di.  See Di Giovanni, Benvenuto

Maso di Banco.  See Di Banco, Maso

-GIAMBONO, Michele, 1420-62, Italy=Venice; International Gothic

Background: He was born in Venice into a family of painters Murrays1959
Influences: The International Gothic style imported into Venice by Gentile da Fabriano & Pisanello & from whom he derived his facial types Murrays1959, Grove12 p580
Career: He is first documented in Venice in 1420 & was already an established painter; joined the Scuola di S Giovanni Evangelista, 1422; &  from 1444 he worked on mosaics in St Mark’s Mascoli Chapel Grove12 p579, Murrays1959
Oeuvre: Altarpieces & small religious works & the design of mosaics Brigstocke, Wikip
Characteristics: Atmospheric effects of great beauty; rich surface textures; attention & delight in detail, & a spirited & rhythmic sense of line.  His figures are informed with a nervous inner life as in S. Chrisogono on Horseback, c1450 (SS. Gervasio & Protasio, Venice, which also illustrate his contrasting light & colour effects Steer pp 32-3, Brigstocke
Status: He was the only Venetian painter who made something of his own from International Gothic Steer p31
Innovations: International Gothic’s courtly style transformed by a new emotional force Steer p33

..GIAMPIETRINO/RIZZOLI, Giovanni, active 1495-40, Italy:

Influences: Leonardo whose influence was strong.  Bernardino Luini was another influence Grove26 pp 440-1, NGLeonardo p224
Career: He may be the gian petro listed by Leonardo between 1497 & 1500 Grove26 p440.
Oeuvre: Altarpieces, small religious paintings, & mythological & historical works Grove26 p440
Characteristics: His work is generally refined & precise with flesh tones barely tinged with pink.  Draperies have intense luminous colours often contrasting with a dark backgrounds, depicting rocky landscapes.  His work combines religious asceticism & eroticism Grove26 pp 440-1
Influenced: Giulio Procfaccini & Daniele Crespi Grove26 p441

-GIAQUINTO, Corrado, 1703-65, Italy=Naples/Rome; Rococo

Background: He was born at Molfetta, near Bari Grove12 p586

Training: After early training in Molfetta, he worked in the studio of Solimano’s pupil Nicola Rossi in Naples Brigstocke

Influences: Solimano, Giordano & then Sabastiano Conca in Rome; & Carl Vanloo, Giovanni Crosta & Francesco De Mura in Turin Brigstocke, Grove12 p586

Career: He moved to Naples, 1721, & to Rome, 1727, with brief but important visits to the Savoy court in Turin in 1733 & around 1735.  He was elected to the Accademia di S. Luca, 1740.  During 1753-62 he was in Spain having been summoned by Ferdinand IV to be court painter.  His duties not only included frescoes at the new Palacio Real -the most important artistic project in 18^th century Spain- but also related design & administrative duties, together with direction of the royal tapestry factory.  In 1762 he left Madrid due to ill-health & went to Naples Brigstocke, Grove 12 pp 586-7

Oeuvre: Religious & allegorical works in oils & fresco Grove12 pp 586-7

Phases/Characteristics/Technique: After his move to Rome & during his visit to Turin he adopted a more delicate & exquisite  Rococo manner for his work in fresco & oil.  During the 1740s, a period when Pompeo Batoni & Pierre Subleyras were exerting a classical influence, his painting became more solemn with simplified composition & figure types.  In Spain he had to restore a fresco by Luca Giordano & following his example adopted vibrant colours dazzling brushwork, as in his modulo Spain Rendering Homage to Religion & the Catholic Church (Museo Diocesiano de la Seo, Saragossa) & fresco above the grand staircase, Palacio Real, Madrid.  He was a master of the freely executed but carefully controlled oil sketch.  Here he brushed delicate pastel hues -sea green, turquoise, lilac & lemon yellow, etc- onto a pearly grey ground, using either transparent glazing or buttery opaque paint so producing a luxuriant surface with a silvery shimmer.  In his large canvases the colours tend to be deeper & the surface smoother Grove12 pp 586-9,  Brigstocke

Status/Influence: He was a leading member of Rome’s Rococo school during the first half of the 18^th century, & the foremost fresco painter in Europe after Tiepolo.   Giaquinto influenced the next generation of Spanish artists including Francisco Bayeu & Francisco de Goya Grove12 pp 586-7

..Aleksander GIERYMSKI, 1850-1901, Poland:

Background: Born in Warsaw, Gierymski was the younger brother of Maximilian Norman1977~
Training: After studying in Warsaw he followed his brother Max to Munich, working under Piloty Norman1977
Phases: Giweymski progressed from history and tavern scenes (1868-74) to plein air explorations of sunlight (1876-80), a Realist depiction of the alienation and poverty of Jewish life in Poland (1880-88), and finally an exploration of landscape and townscape mood, using a Pointillist technique inspired by Seurat Norman1977
Characteristics: Fascinated by the visual challenge of plein air painting he sought to add a painterly realization of psychological mood Norman1977
Personal: Gierymski lived in poverty, wandering between Poland, Germany, France and Italy Norman1977
Repute: He is now hailed as the forerunner of 20^th century Polish Impressionism Norman1977

..Maximilian GIERYMSKI, 1847-74, Aleksander’s brother, Poland:

Background: He was born in Warsaw Norman1977
Training: Studied with Kossak in Warsaw and at the Munich Academy under Piloty Norman1977
Oeuvre: Gierymski painted landscapes, scenes from Polish-Jewish and gypsy life, and military episodes from the 1863 rising and Polish history Norman1977
Characteristics: A genuine feeling for landscapes Norman1977
Verdict: A pioneer of Polish Realism, with a high artistic reputation in Warsaw and Munich Norman1977

..GIFFORD, Sanford 1823-1880, USA:

Background: He was born at Greenfield, New York, & grew up at Hudson into a family sufficiently prosperous for him never to have had financial worries.   His family home was adorned with Turner prints  Grove12 p 605, Avery & Kelly pp 5, 103

Training: At Brown University, 1842-3; with the British watercolourist & drawing master John Rubens Smith, & then figure drawing at the National Academy of Design, & anatomy lessons at the Crosby Street Medical College, New York Grove12 p605, Avery & Kelly p5

Influences: Thomas Cole, & later the Barbizon painters & above all Turner, praising his gay & brilliant painting with forms in which Gifford said, “there is great infinity as well as indefiniteness”.   Ruskin told him that Turner painted the impression not the literal scene Grove12 p605,Avery & Kelly pp 10-11.

Career: He moved to New York, 1845; made a sketching trip to the Berkshire & Catskill Mountains, 1846; began exhibiting at the  National Academy of Design, 1847; had his work promoted by the American Art-Union, 1847-8; was elected to the National Academy, 1854; studied in England, Paris, Fontainebleau’s & Barbizon, & toured in Germany, Switzerland & Italy, 1855-7; established himself at the Tenth Street Studio Building ,1857; made summer sketching trips to scenic locations up to Maine; fought in the Civil War; visited Italy, Greece, Egypt & the Near East, 1868-9; accompanied Worthington Whittredge & John Kensett to the Rockies & then continued onwards; & visited the far West & Alaska, 1874 Grove12 pp605-6  Avery & Kelly p246

Oeuvre: He painted at least 739 pictures all of which appear to be landscapes except for a few Civil War paintings Grove12 p606, Avery & Kelly

Phases: He gave up the dark hued, meticulous Hudson River type of painting for works bathed in light with barely noticeable brush strokes as in Lake of Nemi, 1856-7 (Toledo Museum of Art, Ohio).  It was his first major work in which a tonal unification is achieved through light from a radiant setting sun, henceforth a feature that was almost a trademark Grove12 p605, Avery & Kelly p103

Technique: He used thin glazes to achieve subtle transitions from dark to light & based his paintings on initial pencil sketches & preparatory oil studies as in the Lake of Neni Avery & Kelly pp ix, 104

Characteristics: The great bulk of his landscapes , both of American & foreign locations, are of benign & tranquil summer scenes.  There do not appear to be any storms relatively few that are impending .  His world is one of beauty with an absence of threatening rocks or other natural objects, & there almost no views in which man has caused devastation.  Only a few small figures are to be seen & many of these are quietly contemplating the view Avery & Kelly illustrations 

Grouping: Although he frequently did non-luminist paintings, he was the most consistent Luminist Wilmerding p215

..GIGANTE, Giacinto, 1806-76, Italy:

Background: Born in Naples Norman1977
Training: Trained initially by his father, then at the Naples Academy Norman1977
Influences: Probably influenced by Turner and Bonington, who visited Naples Norman1977
Career: King Ferdinand II appointed him drawing master to his children, and Francesco II made him court painter.   Gigante accompanied the Empress of Russia to Sicily, preparing for her an album of Sicilian views Norman1977
Oeuvre: A landscapist and leading figure in the naturalistic School of Posillipo.  Gigante was most at home in watercolour or tempera, though he also painted extensively in oils Norman1977
Characteristics: He built up effects with rapid touches of colour Norman1977 

*GILBERT (PROESCH) & GEORGE (PASSMORE), 1943 & 1942; Rural Naturalism Movement

Background: Gilbert was born in the Dolomites & George in Dorset OxDicMod

Training: The vocational sculpture class at St Martin’s School of Art, where they met in 1967 OxDicMod

Career: To begin with they worked as performance artists & then from the early1970s accompanied their shows with large paintings & drawings.  They married in 2008, were elected to the RA in 2017 but resigned in 2020 because of a decision to go ahead with an exhibition they had been planning OxDicMod, Wikip

Oeuvre/Characteristics: Large garish, brightly coloured photo-based paintings usually in black & white & fiery red.  Their work tends to be flat & poster-like.  It more or less excludes women, the old except as vagrants whereas the young abound in an ethnically mixed society.   Their images are often drawn from London’s East End , include themselves, & are of a self-indulgent nature Brigstocke, L&L, OxDicMod

Aim/Feature: They claim their work is anti-elitist, adopting the slogan Art for All.  They are oddities in the art world: openly Conservative & praise for Margaret Thatcher Wikip

Status/Reception: They are the most famous avant-garde artists of their generation & their work has been shown worldwide.  Critical opinion is sharply divided  between those who see them as geniuses & those who like Roger Scrunton regard their sole skill as self-promotion Brigstocke

..GILL, Colin, 1892-1940, England:

Background: Born Bexleyheath, near London.   He was Eric Gill’s cousin E&L p86
Training: At the Slade from 1910, where he as the first to win the new Rome scholarship in Decorative Painting.  In 1919 he returned to study at the British School in Rome E&L p86
Influences: Early Italian art E&L p87
Career: During the War he on the Western Front, worked as a camouflage officer was invalided out in 1918 with gas poisoning, but then became an official war artist.   He became a member  of NEAC in 1919, exhibited at the RA from 1924 & taught at the Royal College of Art between 1922 & 1925.   During 1925-27 he painted a mural for St Stephen’s Hall, Westminster & others at the Bank of England in 1932, etc.   In 1932 he painted the future Queen Elizabeth E&L p86, Chamot p111
Oeuvre/Characteristics: He specialised in scenes of an all-over decorative type, crowded with sharply drawn figures which because they are posed & statuesque appear curiously immobile even when they are obviously supposed to be in motion, as in Heavy Artillery (Imperial War Museum).  His portraits appear to be his only works of a non-stylised type webimages.
Verdict: He never fulfilled the promise of his early work & appears to have been caught uncomfortably between the 19^th century tradition in which he had been trained & the desire to produce work that was more avant-garde Liss Llewellyn.

-GILLIES, Sir William George, or simply W.G. Gillies, 1898-1973, Scotland:

Background: He was born in Haddington, East Lothian Wikip

Training: Before & after the War studied at Edinburgh College of Art; 1924 in Paris with Lhote, going on to visit Italy L&L, Wikip

Influences: Bonnard’s colour painting rather than Lhote’s Cubist tradition; a Munch exhibition in 1931 encouraged more expressive brushwork L&L

Career: Together  with fellow students he founded the 1922 Group, an exhibition society.   He worked at the Edinburgh College of Art, 1926-66, latterly as its principal; & he settled at Temple in 1939, a village about 10 miles from Edinburgh, painting many views thereabouts  L&L OxDicArt, Wikip

Oeuvre: Landscape, Still-Life influenced by Matisse, & some early portraits  OxDicMod, Wikip

Aim: Following his move to Temple he sought to use simple planning & tonal relationships to produce subtle & evocative paintings OxDicMod Phases/Characteristics: After Italy he worked briefly in a Cubist manner as in his derivative  [& unpleasing] Two Pots, Saucer & Fruit, 1934, Edinburgh) & he had an immense output & his work was inevitably uneven & until the early 1930s hid palette was muted & almost monochrome.  However, under the influence of Bonnard & Fauvism it became higher pitched.    He reverted to a more traditional style as in Tweeddale, 1959 (Royal Scottish Academy): [an example of his best work] featuring a simplified & lyrical naturalism & a strong decorative sense of design Wikip, Grove12 p637 

Repute: He was one of the most popular modern Scottish painters OxDicMod

Legacy: Both through his work & teaching he had a profound influence on Scottish painting Wikip

Collections: NG of Modern Art, Edinburgh

Sister: The potter Emma Smith Gillies Wikip

-GILLIS. Nicolaes, active 1610, Netherlands=Haarlem:

Career: He arrived in Haarlem from Antwerp & must have worked there from about 1610 Haak p181
Oeuvre: Still life Haak pp180-1
Characteristics: His works are of the first generation (spread out or additive) type in which there is a high vanishing point so that the objects on the table do not overlap with clear, fresh colours, a damask table cloth, one or two glasses, & usually a plate with various cheeses Haak pp123, 247
Status: He was a still-life pioneer (along with Floris Van Dijck & Floris Van Schooten) L&L

-GILLOT, Claude. 1673-1722, France:

Background: Born Langres, the son of an embroiderer & painter of ornaments Grove12 p637

Training: Studio of Jean-Baptiste Corneille from about 1690 Grove12 p637

Influences: The popular theatre Grove12 p637

Career: He is said to have run a puppet theatre, etc.   In 1715 he was received into the Academie Royale.  He died in poverty Grove12 p637 pp 637-8

Oeuvre: Paintings, though few have survived,  etchings of  scenes from commedia dell’arte, drawings & illustrations  OxDicArt, Grove12 p637

Phases: His best-known drawings & etchings date from around 1700-10 Grove12 p637

Characteristics: He was a satirist, malcontent, & distrusted grandeur.   He was able to make something extraordinary out of the ordinary & a painter of theatrical life.   His strange frieze-like bacchanals are populated by satyrs & bacchante.  The oils Cabmen’s Dispute & Master Andrew’s Tomb (Louvre)  lack the light touch of his drawings B-S p28, Grove12 p637

Innovations: He was one of the first to engrave commedia dell’arte scenes, & played a key role in developing the fete galante WestS1996, Grove12 p638

Pupils: Watteau & Nicolas Lancet Grove12 p638

Influenced: Hogarth as the remarkable similarity between his Morning, 1738,& Gillot’s Cabmen’s Dispute, 1707, shows Antal1982 p61, etc

-GILLRAY, James, 1757-1815, GB:

Background: He was born in London.   His father was a Scot & sexton of the Moravian settlement in Chelsea  Grove12 p639

Training: The Royal Academy Schools but he was probably largely self-trained OxDicArt

Influences: Hogarth Antal1962 p184

Career: He briefly attended the Moravian school in Bedford & during the early 1780s was apprenticed to an engraver.   He joined a travelling theatre but by 1775 he was engraving satirical prints.   His first known political satire was in 1778 Grove12 p639. After 1783 he gave up satire & then until 1789 he produced both satire & other work: portraits, fancy & historical paintings, these being more respectable & lucrative.   After the failure of a portrait print of Pitt, he concentrated on satire.   He savagely attacked the French regicides & gave support to George Canning who, in 1797,  secured him a pension of £200 a year.   Between 1801 & 1805 he concentrated on social satire with the important exception of his cartoons of Boney.    By 1810 he was insane  Grove12 pp 640-1.

Oeuvre: He produced some 1500 caricatures between 1779 & 1811 L&L

Characteristics: His caricatures display fecund & vivid imagination, & a pointed wit behind his bludgeoning attacks on the royal family, leading politicians, Napoleon & the French OxDicArt, L&L.   Although sympathetic Gillray depicted the poor as demoralised, skeletal, bestial creatures staring malevolently from the margins of his prints Hilton p580

Innovations: He largely invented British political caricature & was among the first to exaggerate the subject’s facial features while retaining a recognisable likeness Grove12 pp 639-40

Influence: His cartoons helped discredit the Fox-North coalition (1783-4) Watson pp 258, 271, 346-7.    Those during the French Revolution encouraged the belief that the Foxite Whips wore red caps of liberty & wanted to behead George III & establish a ragged Republic Trevelyan 1937 p66

Repute: This waned in the strait-laced climate that followed the Regency `      Grove12 p639 

 -GILMAN, Harold, 1876-1919, not to be confused with Ginner, GB:

Background: He was born at Rode, Somerset, the son of a country parson OxDicMod
Training: 1897-1901 at the Slade, where he became a close friend of Gore OxDicMod
Influences: Sickert, Lucian Pissaro L&L
Career: He spent most of his career in the London area, although he travelled widely to Odessa (1905), Spain (1902-3), America (1905), Paris (1911), Sweden (1912) & Norway (1914).   In 1907 he met Sickert & soon became a core member the Fitzroy Street Group OxDicMod, Harrison p29.   He was in 1911 a founder member of the Camden Town Group &, in 1914, of the London Group, of which he was President.   With Gore he fell out with Sickert in 1914.   After Gore’s death in 1914 he took over his teaching at Westminster Art School &, during 1915-17, ran his own school with Ginner.   He died in the influenza epidemic of 1919 OxDicMod
Oeuvre: Interiors, portraits & landscapes OxDicMod
Phases: Initially his painting was of the subdued tonal variety that he inherited from Whistler & the Slade Shone1977 p14.   However, under the influence of Sickert his colours became brighter & he began using a mosaic of opaque touches.   After the Post Impressionist Exhibition of 1910, & the 1911 visit to Paris with Ginner in which they looked at numerous Post-Impressionists, he used very thick paint & bright, sometimes garish colour OxDicMod, Harrisonp35.   He painted with deliberation in a way that suggested space but conveyed a feeling of Post-Impressionist flatnessL&L
Verdict: He was one of the most gifted English painters of his generation OxDicArt
Feature: He insisted that women should be excluded from the Camden Town Group Spalding1986 p43
Personal: He had a somwhat misanthropic temperament Spalding1986 p48

 -Sawewy GILPIN, 1733-1807, William’s brother, England:

Training: He was apprenticed to Samuel Scott OxCompArt
Career: He turned early to the painting of horses, being employed by the Duke of Cumberland to make portray celebrated racers.   He became an RA in 1797 OxCompArt
Oeuvre: Animal & especially horse paintings.   He also painted literary & history works that included horses L&L

 -Rev William GILPIN, 1724-1804, Sawrey’s brother, England; Romantic Picturesque Movement

Career: His 1768 Essay on Prints was  the standard work on print collecting & it contained remarks on picturesque beauty.   During  1768-76  he toured Britain viewing the picturesque.   These were  published from 1781, & were illustrated by own fine aquatints.   The most theoretical of his works was Three Essays: On Picturesque Beauty: On Picturesque Travel: & On Sketching Landscape, 1792  OxCompArt, Klingender1968 p84
First: to establish Picturesque as aesthetic category OxDicArt
Beliefs: He said that picturesque objects are those that are “proper subjects for painting” but he never produced consistent definition. However, he highlighted its characteristics as being the rough & rugged, & not the neat & smooth; the absence of symmetry, balance, four-squareness, & in general man’s works, including ploughed fields.   He believed that youthful charms & industrious mechanics are less picturesque than patriarchal wrinkles, lolling & lazy peasants, shabby beards, gypsies, banditti, tattered soldiers, hovels, barns, quarries & gravel pits that have softened because of time & weather Klingender1968 p85
Legacy: He had a profound & lasting influence on taste OxCompArt

..GIMIGNANI, Giacinto, 1606-81, Italy:

Background: Born Pistoia.   His father Alessio, 1567-1651, was a painter Brigstocke, Grove12 p648
Influences: Domenichino, Andrea Sacchi, Alessandro Turchi & Poussin Grove12 p648
Career: From 1630 he was in Rome working under Pietro do Cortona for the Barberini family & in 1648 he assisted him in decorating the Palazzo Pamphili, Rome.  During the early 1650s he worked in Florence, & in the late 1650s at Luca (S Agostino) & for churches in the Marches.   Then he returned to Rome Grove12 p648
Oeuvre: Oils, frescoes, tapestry cartoons & from the 1640s etchings. His works included altarpieces, other religious works, & classical subjects Grove12 p648
Characteristics: He developed an individual classicist style featuring brilliant colour, painterly surfaces & balanced composition His style was similar to |that of Sassoferrato with the [as in] Adoration of the Kings, 1641 (Burghley House, Stamford) with its rich, glowing colour, silver-white highlights & sophisticated design being a particularly good example of his work Waterhouse1962 pp 62-63
Innovation: With Giovanni Romanelli he introduced Roman Baroque into France Grove12 p648
Collections: There are 25 paintings in the Palazzo Rospigliosi, Pistoia, 1552-4 Grove12 p648
Son: Ludovico, 1643-97, painted altarpieces & frescoes in Roman churches including Il Gesu Grove12 pp 648-49

Modenna, Barnaba.  See Da Modenna, Barnaba

Modenna, Tomaso/Tomasso.  See Da Modenna, Tomaso/Tomasso

-GINNER, Charles, 1878-1952, not to be confused with Gilman, England:

Background: Born Cannes, the son of an English doctor OxDicMod

Training: Initially in architecture due to parental opposition to his becoming a painter but from 1904 to 1908 he studied at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts etc OxDicMod

Influences: Van Gogh & Gauguin Harrison p38

Career: He grew up in France.   After a trip to Buenos Aires, he settled in London in 1910.   Through his friends Gilman & Gore he joined the Sickert circle & became a founder member of the Camden Town Group in 1911, & then of the London Group OxDicMod.   With Gilman he exhibited as a Neo-Realist in the Goupil Gallery in 1914 & he helped found the Cumberland Market Group Harrison p41.  He worked in the Canadian War Records Commission during the First World War & was an Official War artist during in the Second OxDicMod.   He joined NEAC c1921 & became an ARA in 1942  Shone1977 p216, Ox20Art

Speciality: Views of drab areas in London, although he also depicted places of hustle & bustle  OxDicMod

Characteristics: He painted with thick, regular brushstrokes & firm outlines creating a heavily textured surface which give his buildings a feeling of structural solidity.    However, such a technique was impersonal & almost mechanical.    His colours were emphatic OxDicMod, OxDicArt, L&L, Spalding1986 p45.   Although he apparently painted every brick, he succeeded at his best in conveying the impression & mood of the scene Ox20Art 

Verdict: He was not really a strong painter Harrison p41

Beliefs: In his forward to the Goupil exhibition of 1914 he rejected Naturalism  as merely copying but, more important, criticised the Parisian belief that Decoration was the unique aim of Art & said that the interpretation of every mood & aspect of life was of equal importance.   “Realism, loving life, loving its age interprets its epoch by extracting from it the very essence of all it contains of great or weak, of beautiful or sordid, according to individual temperament” Harrison p41.   He believed that the Impressionists together with Cezanne, Gauguin & Van Gogh had had the necessary contact with nature but the Cubists, Matisse & the Fry-Bell clique had debased art & lost direct contact with reality.   This led to Academicism & formulaic painting.   Ginner also criticised slap-dash & slick painting, & endorsed sound craftsmanship OxDicMod, Baron pp 65-6

Collections: the Tate

*GIORDANO, Luca, 1634-1705, Italy=Naples & Sicily; Baroque

Background: He was born in Naples, the son of the painter Antonio, c1597-1683 Grove12 p659-60

Training: Ribera or someone in his circle L&L, Grove12 p660

Influences: Initially Ribera; Lanfranco’s Neapolitan work which provided the idea of what High Baroque could be; in Italy Da Cortona with his High Baroque principles, Titian, Veronese’s high-keyed colour & elegant & graceful movement, Mattia Pretti, & Rubens  OxDicArt; Waterhouse1962 p191, Grove12 p660

Career: Around 1652 he studied in Rome, Florence & Venice; returned to Naples, 1653; & during 1692-1702 worked at the court of Charles II of Spain L&L, Grove12 p660

Oeuvre: Mainly religious & mythological works in oils & fresco OxDicArt, Grove12 pp660

Speciality: Paintings of philosophers as in Crates, 1660 (Palazzo Barberini, Rome) Grove12 p660

Phases: His late work anticipates Rococo L&L

Technique: He used dark grounds & these then served for unlit areas except where over-painted with coloured glaze & some descriptive, fluent  brushwork.   This economical technique explains why his output was so phenomenal Levey1977 p25, Grove23 pp 377-8

Characteristics: His work was a synthesis of Realism & Baroque painterliness modified by new contacts, e.g. Maratta’s classicising work.   His compositions  were open & airy, & he used light luminous colours anticipating Rococo L&L, OxDicArt.   His mood was often light-hearted & his rapes & sacrifices look like ballets performed by over-enthusiastic amateurs Levey1977 p24.  They make dramatic gestures, lean sideways, & are piled up with further figures floating in the sky.  He used abundant chiaroscuro & there are sometimes bursts of golden light as in Judith Displaying the Head of Holofernes, 1703-4 (St Louis Art Museum), webimages

Gossip: Nicknamed Luca fa presto meaning paint-fast Luke L&L

Status: He was the most important Italian decorative artist of the second half of the century OxDicArt 

Verdict: Nothing of real significance happens in his works & they lack intellectual power.   It is “sheer brilliant brainlessness” Levey1977 p24

Grouping: Baroque but he anticipated Rococo P&B p40, Levey1977 p24.

Influence: He helped revive Venetian  painting through his visit in 1653 & paintings, e.g. Deposition (b1659), Presentation in the Temple, c1675 Waterhouse1962 pp 193-6;Wittkower1973 p347

**GIORGIONE/Giorgio da’CASTELFRANCO, c1477-1510, Italy, High Renaissance Movement

Background: It was humble Vasari2 p168

Training: Giovanni Bellini  “it is said” Vasari2 p52

Influences: Giovanni Bellini’s late style Steer p73.   According to Vasari he was influenced by Leonardo’s works with their beautiful gradation of colours & dark shadow effects.   This was in the second edition & was based on information from the Florentine ambassador, Cosimo Bartoli RAGiorgione pp 21-3.   Leonardo also influenced Giorgione’s way of looking at forms, e.g. a more plastic & regular oval female face in place of the wide shallow features of Bellini’s Madonna’s Clark1939 p161.   The poets in the Arcadia movement at Catarina Cornaro’s court at Azolo, which was near to Castelfranco, had an impact Clarke1949 pp 114-5.   Giorgione’s contact with her court is unconfirmed but Vasari saw his portrait of her in the hands of Giovan Cornaro Vasari2 p171.

Career: In 1507 he painted a canvas for the Doge’s Palace, later destroyed, & in 1508 executed a fresco on the facade of the German warehouse next to the Rialto bridge Grove12 p669.   He broke his friendship with Titian when nobles said the latter’s fresco was superior Vasari4 p200.   In 1510 Isabella d’Este told her agent to buy an unknown Giorgione night scene.   The agent replied that neither of two such paintings were purchasable nor any other work Grove12 p669

Personal: He was called Giorgione or Great George because of his stature & greatness of mind.   He had gentle & polished manners; played the lute & sang so beautifully that he was often invited to musical gatherings of noble persons; & he was amorous, catching the fatal plague from a female lover Vasari2 pp 168, 172.   Giorgione was obviously bright, witness the argument with sculptors about the relative superiority of sculpture & painting.   The painting in question was said to be inferior because it was only showed  one side of a figure.     Giorgione replied that painting was superior because there was no need to walk around it to see all sides.   He then painted a beautiful & ingenious nude the various aspects of which were reflected in a mirror & water etc Vasari2 p171

Oeuvre: About 40 paintings were attributed in 16^th century, over 250 during the 17^th century, even more later, but there was a diminution over the course of the 19^th century, & around 40 are attributed today.   It is difficult to establishing what Giorgione painted due to the absence of signatures & records.   Only [the as in paintings] The Tempest (Academia, Venice), Boy with an Arrow (Kunsthistorisches, Vienna), Laura (Kunsthistororisches, Vienna)], & Portrait of a Man (San Diego) are reasonably certain to be wholly his work Grove12 p671.   Contemporary documentary evidence is restricted to Notiza d’opere di disegno; written by Marcantonio Michiel (1484-1552), the Venetian noble, humanist & collector, who visited eleven Venetian collections (1525-43)  & provided information on five or more works painted, or partly painted, by Giorgione.  These included the [as in] Sleeping Venus, c1508-10 (Gemäldegalerie, Dresden) although he noted that the landscape was finished by Titian, & the Three Philosophers, c1504-8 (Kunsthistoriches) by abastiano del Piombo Hale p94, RAGiorgione pp 25-7.   There are also a handful of [as in] undocumented works including Judith (Hermitage), the Madonna & Child with St Liberale & St Francis/Castlefranco Altarpiece, c1504 (Cathedral, Castlefranco), the Portrait of a Young Man (Gemaldegalerie) which virtually every modern critic agrees is by Giorgione, & the Adoration of the Magi, c1506-7, which is usually accepted as by Giorgione.    If major Giorgionesque works are deleted from his oeuvre there is then the problem of where they fit in the careers of other artists Grove12 p672, Steer p80

Technique: He drew from life & his technique was of a revolutionary nature.  The established procedure was to make preparatory drawings on paper & so work out the exact position of every major form, & then to paint in the colour planes within their predetermined contours.  In contrast Giorgione method was an experimental & evolutionary process in which the finished painting emerged by a process of trial, error until he was finally satisfied.  Moreover, paint was applied unevenly, expressively with forms that seem to emerge out of & fuse with each other, together with the introduction of impasto highlights.  Here for the first time the full potential oil paint became evident Vasari2 pp 168-9, Grove12 pp 677–78, Steer pp 85-6.

Firsts/Innovations: (i) The reclining nude, which was not the pose of any famous nude of antiquity Clark1956 p115; (ii) small secular subjects for private Venetian buyers Murray p126; (iii) the poesy with figures in a landscape, the mood being pensive, & the subject unimportant Steer1970 pp 78-9; (iv) a new way of depicting nature which in The Tempest is vital & dynamic, producing a sense of moist fecundity with flashes of light & patches of colour against areas of deep shadow Grove9 p185; (v) the association of the pure Classical nude with beneficent beauty of a calm landscape for which however Titian may have  been responsible Steer1870 p89; (vi) the romantic image of androgenous boys as cupids or shepherds, as in the Boy with an Arrow Grove12 p675; & (vii) the extraordinary subtlety of his sfumato as in the Adoration (NG) in which, perhaps as never before, had painted forms seemed so rounded, soft & sensuous Steer p79 . 

Followers/Circle/Legacy: Belliniano; Cariani; Catena; Giambattista Cima; Pordenone RAVenice pp 160, 167, 171, Steer p90, Murrays1959.   A school of poesie painters developed after him.  However, in the hands of lesser followers such as Cima they lacked Georgione’s subtlety & there was a narrowing to a mood of gracious pastoral calm reflected in a fuzzy atmosphere & singing soft colour.   A school of poesie painters developed after him Steer pp 79, 90

Patronage: The information on who bought Giorgione’s work either initially or second hand is limited & inconclusive.  However, it appears that a number came from wealthy merchant & mercantile families rather than from landowners on the mainland.  What does seem likely is that purchasers & patrons differed from those bought large scale religious works or smaller Madonna’s & devotional paintings Grove12 pp 675-6

  **GIOTTO di Bondone, c1267-1337, Italy=Florence:

Background: His father was a field labourer Vasari1 p66

Influences: Pisano’s sculpture; Cavallini; Cimabue L&L, OxDicArt

Career: Reputedly when he was ten he drew from nature onto flat stones or sand.   Cimabue spotted him drawing one of the sheep Giotto was minding & invited him to come to Florence Vasari1 p66.   He painted at least some of the frescoes in the upper church of S. Francesco, Assisi & during 1504-6 he painted frescoes in the Arena chapel, Padua.   In the 1320s he worked on frescoes in the Peruzzi chapel, S. Groce, Florence OxDicArt.   He also worked in Rome, Avignon & Naples at the court of Robert of Anjou (1328-32) but no paintings survive.   In 1334 Giotto became the chief architect of the cathedral in Florence L&L

Technique: Giotto used various fresco techniques.   At the Arena chapel he used the wet plaster on fresco method with only a small amount of seco work whereas at the Peruzzi chapel he employed seco Grove32 p805

Characteristics: He more or less ignored shadows & was not interested in natural objects Wolfflin1899 p5,  Clarke1949p9

Innovations: He rejected Byzantine stylisation & stressed the  moral weight of sacred events rather than devine splendour.   He introduced a new naturalism & his frescoes had a convincing sense of three-dimensionality & physical presence OxDicArt.   Giotto helped to introduce & develop the true fresco painting of the Italian Renaissance Grove32 p805

Verdict: The humanisation of religious figures by the early 13^th century Italian artists reached its climax in Giotto.    Previously distant, & otherworldly figures now became warm & human Eimerl pp 26-7

Friends: Dante who in the Divine Comedy said that he was supreme in his field Eimerl p8

Personal: From more or less contemporaneous sources he appears to have been good natured, witty & shrewd OxDicArt

Gossip: When Dante visited Giotto who was working at the Arena chapel he reputedly asked him how a man who painted such beautiful pictures could have produced such homely children.   Giotto replied that he made his pictures by day & his babies by night Eimerl p106

Influence: This continued in Florence but by the Black Death & after (1348) painting became more stylised & hieratic L&L; Taddeo Gaddi was one of his most faithful followers, & through him he influenced Agnolo GaddiMurrays1959.   Later he inspired Masaccio OxDicArt

-Benvenuto di GIOVANNI, 1436-c1518=Italy:

Giovanni di Paolo.  See  Di Paolo

Giovanni da Balogna.   See da Balogna

Giovanni da Milanano.   See Milanano

Giovanni da San Giovanni.   See da San Giovanni

Giovanni da Udine.   See da Udine

..GIRADET/GIRARDET, Karl, 1813-71, Switzerland/France:

Background: Born in Locle, the son of artist Charles Samuel Giradet Norman1977
Training: He studied under L. Cogniet in Paris, from 1822 Norman1977
Influences: Influenced by the Delaroche school Norman1977
Career: Giradet/Girardet’s small genre scenes in the 1836 Salon were successful, and he was taken up by Louis-Philippe, who sent him to Italy and Egypt to make studies for a painting for Versailles Norman1977
Oeuvre: A painter of genre, landscape and historical subjects Norman1977
Verdict: Giradet/Girardet’s sketches have been compared to those of Menzel as forerunners of the Realist revolution Norman1977

*GIRODET-TRIOSON/DE ROUCY TRIOSON, Anne-Louis, 1767-1824 confusable with Gerard, France; Romantic Melodramatic: France

Background: He was born at Montargis, Loiret; & was adopted by Dr Benoit-Triboson his tutor, guardian & probable father Grove12 p729.

Training: After studying architecture in Paris, he entered David’s atelier in 1783 or 84, early Neo-Classical works very similar to those of David & his other pupils Grove12 p729

Career: He finally won the Prix de Rome, 1789; & was belatedly in Italy during 1790-95, producing the key work the Sleep of Endymion, 1791; having quarrelled with a fashionable actress who had commissioned him he destroyed his portrait & produced the scurrilous Mlle Lange as Danae, 1799 (Minneapolis Institute of Art).  During 1808-14 he was largely engaged on works featuring Napoleon & allegorical & mythological paintings for the Empress Josephine.  Most were undistinguished, & there was a large amount of repetitive hack work.  In 1815 he inherited a fortune from Benoit-Trioson & thereafter produced little of note Grove12 p729-31

Oeuvre: Religious, historical & mythological paintings, portraits & book illustrations Grove12 pp729-30

Beliefs: “Painting is a job for the galley slave” Friedlaender1930 p42

Characteristics: His major works are bizarre, disconcerting, innovative & well-nigh unique.   They are the products of an artist who was arrogant, paranoid & vindictive, but also the product of a of period of revolutionary upheaval followed by the Napoleonic era, & this links some of his paintings to the works, or in the case of the Barbus absence of works, by other artists.   His innovative paintings began with the imaginative [as in] Sleep of Endymion & his break with David’s strict & earnest Neo-Classicism  & its replacement by an erotic & poetic work in which  magical, mystical moonlight falls upon his lovely sleeper .   His next major work was his [as in] Portrait of  Jean-Baptiste Belley, 1797 (Chateau, Versailles) a former slave from the French colony of St Dominique who became a deputy in the Convention.   It is a striking but strangely disquieting image.  His intensely black face contrasts sharply with the white marble bust of a large headed philosopher who had written a treatise against slavery but is staring in the opposite direction.  An even stranger work was his [as in]  Ossian & the French Generals, 1892 (Musee de Malmaison) inspired by the supposedly ancient Gaelic poems of Osian.  It depicted Ossianic figures & generals killed in the wars of the Revolution in a finely executed, melodramatic work using striking chiaroscuro & glowing silver white, grey-white & yellow.  The painting was a complete stylistic  break with David’s Neo-classicism.  His final work of a fresh & innovative nature was the [as in]  Revolt of Cairo (Chateau, Versailles) showing a stunningly violent & sanguinary attack by French soldiers, seemingly in motion across the canvas, upon a crowd of Egyptians who are fighting back.  It was an early example of Romantic orientalism & an outstanding work at the Salon of 1810 Grove12 pp 729, 731, Honour1978 p186, webimages, R&J pp 42, 65, Friedlaender1930 OxCompEng, Honour1978 pp 186-87

Pupils: Leon Cogniet, Alexandre Colin Theodore Gudin, Archille & Eugene Deveria, Henri-Guillaume  Chantillon, & Hyacinthe Aubry-Lecomte Grove12 p732

Collections: Musee Girodat, Montargis

-GIRTIN, Thomas, 1775-1802, England:

Background:  He was born in London, the son of a rope-maker WestS1996

Training: He was apprenticed to the topographical watercolour painter Edward Dayes Grove12 p741

Influences: Canaletto, 17^th century Dutch panoramic views, & John Robert Cozens WestS1996, Grove12 p741

Career: In 1794 he first exhibited at the RA & toured the Midlands making pencil sketches which were then worked up.  He made sketching tours to the North East & southern Scotland, 1796; to the South West, 1797; to North Wales, 1798; to Yorkshire & North Wales, 1800; to Yorkshire, 1801; & to Paris, 1801-2.  Girtin died of tuberculosis Grove12  p741

Oeuvre: Watercolours, etchings with acquiring added; & one surviving oil painting Grove12 741-3

Phases/Characteristics: From his first tour his works display drama with light playing over intricate facades.  In 1796 he replaced traditional grey underpainting with local colour using strong blues & browns & in which shadows were glazed over lighter areas.  During1797, he abandoned picturesque, dramatic landscape & imposed a pattern on the West Country’s terrain by manipulating hedgerow lines & cloud shadows as in Above Lyme Regis (National Gallery, Ottawa).  He switched to blank cartridge paper which had a pleasing texture & was left blank for his highlights as in White House at Chelsea, 1800 Tate Gallery].  In 1797 he began painting in warm browns & used a broken, flickering touch Grove12 pp 741

Circle: From 1794 to around 1798 he attended Dr Thomas Monro’s evening sessions in Adelphi Terrace where, along with Turner, he was employed to copy drawings, Girtin drawing the outlines & Turner adding the washes Grove12 p741

Influence: John & Cornelius Varley, Peter De Wint & Cotman Grove12 p241

Innovation/Grouping: His watercolour technique demonstrated that the medium could have the visual & emotional impact of oils.  [Moreover, he appears to have initiated the Romantic Naturalist Movement.  Its key feature was the desire & ability to paint a landscape where something is made out of nothing.  There were a number of nearly contemporary but slightly later artists of this type, including Constable, Cotman, & Van Troostwijk.  However,  John Robert Cozens, & Valenciennes may be thought to have anticipated Girtin Grove12 p241, Honour1979 pp 63, 66, 69, 71, WestS1996 p361

Giulio Romano.  See Romano

Giunta.   See Pisano

Giusto de’Menabuoni.   See de’ Menabuoni

GLACKENS, William, 1870-1938, USA; Ashcan School

Background: He was born in Philadelphia OxDicMod
Training: Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts OxDicMod
Influences: The Impressionists OxDicMod
Career: To begin with he was mainly a newspaper illustrator but was encouraged to take up painting by Henri whom he met in 1891.   In 1895 he visited Paris & in 1896 settled in New York where to some extent he continued to work for papers & magazines.   However, he did illustration after about 1905 OxDicMod   In 1908 he exhibited with The Eight at the Macbeth Galleries TurnerEtoPM p152.   He helped organise the Armoury Show & from 1912 was employed by Albert Barnes to tour Europe & buy pictures.   Glackens was the first president of the Society of Independent ArtistsOxDicMod
Oeuvre: Painter & draftsman OxDicMod
Characteristics/Phases: His scenes of contemporary life show less concern for Social Realism & more for representing the life of the people as a colourful spectacle.   By 1913 he was painting in a style similar to early Renoir OxDicMod
Grouping: He has been included in both the Ashcan School & American Impressionism OxDicMod, Gerdts1984 p283

-GLARNER, Fritz, 1899-1972, Swiss-American:

Background: Born Zurich L&L
Training: At the Academy Naples, 1916-21 OxDicMod
Career: From 1923 to 1935 he was in Paris where he was into abstraction by Robert Delaunay & Van Doesburg.  He moved to New York in 1936 & joined American Abstract Artists L&L
Characteristics/Verdict: His paintings are a light variant on Mondrian’s greater austerity & suit large-scale.  His forms are often inclined producing a shifting, dynamic effect L&L
Friend: Mondrian OxDicMod

..GLASSON, Lancelot, 1894-1959, England:

Background: He was born in London, the son of a barrister Wilcox2006 p101.
Training: Heatherly’s School & the RA Schools Wilocox2006 p101
Career: During the Great War he was an officer in the Royal Fusiliers, lost a leg, then took up art seriously.   He exhibited at the RA, rapidly gained attention & in 1932 The Young Rower was Picture of the Year.   After becoming Chairman of the family firm of beer bottlers his output declined Wilcox2006 p101.

*GLEIZES, Albert, 1881-1953, France:

-GLEYRE, Charles, 1808-74, France (born Switzerland):

Background: He was born at Chevill near Lausanne TurnerDtoI p209
Training: Louis Hersent’s studio & Bonington’s watercolour classes TurnerDtoI p209
Influences: Classical & Renaissance monuments in Rome TurnerDtoI p209
Career: In 1825 he went to Paris & between 1828 & 1834 was in Rome living in poverty.  During 1834-5 he accompanied the American traveller John Lowell to Greece. Turkey, Rhodes, Egypt & the Sudan.   Gleyre produced a mass of drawings & watercolours at virtually every important site.   In 1843 Evening/Lost Illusions was a  sensation at th Salon but in 1849 he stopped exhibiting due to his Republicanism.  From 1843 to 1870 he ran David’s old atelier TurnerDtoI pp 209-10
Oeuvre: Classical & biblical subjects.   Also Swiss historical subjects, genre motifs & obscure original themes.   In 1845 he embarked on a curious series of paintings of primeval times TurnerDtoI pp 209-10.
Characteristics: Though academic Gleyre’s subjects were often new & imaginatively selected, especially his later works.   His paintings have a dreamy, romantic air.  The eastern drawings & watercolours were sometimes remarkably spontaneous & always brilliantly coloured TurnerDtoI pp 209-10.
Features: He tried on Eastern dress ThompsonJ p29
Innovations: He helped create the juste-mileau & Neo-Grec styles TurnerDtoI p209
Atelier: This was liberal & popular.   The students decided their daily activities & general programme.  Gleyre refused payment & only recovered his expenses.   His pupils included Monet, Renoir, Sisley, Bazille Pointer & Gerome, although their attendance was brief TurnerDtoI p210, ThompsonJ p88.
Influence: Gleyre’ stress on the importance of making broadly painted, preliminary sketches left its stamp, albeit ironic, on his Impressionist pupils R&J p171

..GLUCK/GLUCKSTEIN, Hannah, 1895-1978, England:

Background: She belonged to the family that founded J. Lyons & inherited wealth OxDicMod
Training: 1913-16 at the St John’s Wood School of Art OxDicMod.  However, she disdained art lessons & was largely self-taught E&L p89
Influences: She was encouraged by Munnings OxDicMod
Career: In 1916 she visited Lamorna where she bought a cottage & she became friendly with the Newlyn artists including the Procters, Knight & Harvery E&L p89.    During the 1930s & 40s she became well known exhibiting with great success at the Fine Arts Society.   She faded from prominence after 1945 & in the 1950s & 60s devoted much time to an obsessive campaign to improving the quality of artists’ materials OxDicMod
Oeuvre: Mostly portraits but also  lanscapes, race meetings & formal flower pieces OxDicMod, Fox1985 p160
Characteristics: She painted with fashionable panache in an Art Deco style OxDicMod
Personal: She was a lesbian, cut her hair short, dressed in men’s formal clothes & smoked a pipe E&L p89
Feature: She never exhibited at the RA or any other society E&L p89

..GODWARD, John William, 1861-1922, Academic Painting from 1845; Academic Movement

Influences: Alma-Tadema; Leighton Wood1999 p232
Career: After return from Italy he found his pictures unsalable & gassed himself Wood1999 p232
Oeuvre & Characteristics: Classical subjects that always involving girls in Classical, often diaphanous robes, on marble terraces.   His  female images had a notably sultry & erotic edge Wood1999 pp 232-3
Verdict: His technical mastery rivalled that of  Alma-Tadema Wood1999 p232
Personal: He was modest & reclusive Wood1999 p232

Goes.  See van der Goes

 *GOLTZIUS, Hendrick, 1558-1616, Netherlands=Harlem; Mannerism Movement

Background: He was of German descent OxDicArt
Training: His father who was a glass painter, & Dirck Cornhert, a Dutch  politician, humanist & theologian who worked as an engraver OxDicArt
Influences: Initially Spranger to whose work he was introduced by van Mander L&L.
Career: When he was three the family moved to Duisberg & in 1577, after Haarlem had declared for William the Silent, Goltzius followed Coornhert there & worked in Haarlem until his death Turner RtoV pp 122-3.   He led a group of Mannerist artists & in 1583 founded an  academy with van Mander & van Haarlem.   During 1590-91 he visited Rome OxDicArt.   In 1612 he had contact with Rubens when he visited Haarlem MB p66
Oeuvre: He was prolific & versatile graphic artist & painter.   His work included realistic engraved portraits, minute animal & plant studies etc, etc L&L
Phases: During 1585-90 he made Mannerist engravings.   After Rome he abandoned Mannerism & his work became more classical   OxDicArt.   He made drawings & prints of mythological subjects & after antrique statuary in the style of Raphael & Parmigianino.   Around 1600 he began to paint, frequently producing  allegorical & mythological works L&L.
First: He initiated landscape prints & was the first Dutch artist to make open-air drawings of the Dutch landscape L&L.  His drawings of dunes near Haarlem are the first examples of Dutch naturalistic landscape Stechow p17, Grove18 p710.
Status: Goltzius was one of the most influential North European artists of day, transmitting Italian themes & styles.   He was an unsurpassed draftsman & engraver despite his crippled right hand L&L, OxDicArt.   By 1600 he was recognised as Europe’s pre-eminent graphic artist MB p64.   With the paintings he produced after 1610 he was the founding father of Dutch classicism, although there is some resemblance with Rubens  MB pp 16, 27
Pupils: Jacob Mathan who was his stepson & de Gheyn II L&L
Legacy: His engravings influenced many artists, including Rembrandt Turner RtoV p122.   The landscape prints anticipated & may have directly influenced the Dutch landscape school L&L.
Repute: His extraordinary importance in the history of Dutch 17^th century landscape was almost overlooked until the 1930s Stechow pp 17, 225, 229

-GOLUB, Leon, 1922-2004, USA; Political Art:

Background: Born Chicago OxDicMod
Training: History at the University of Chicago & painting at the Art Institute, Chicago, 1946-50  OxDicMod
Influences: Picasso’s Guernica OxDicMod
Career: He taught at various colleges & spent 1956-7 in Italy & 1959-64 in Paris.  He was an outspoken opponent of Abstract Expressionism OxDicMod
Phases/Characteristics/Technique: Initially abstraction,  monster-like creatures in the 1950s, & then greater naturalism in works, often large, that expressed stress & violence.   They explored man’s urge to greatness & fall into viciousness.  His work became increasingly political dealing with Vietnam, El Salvador, mercenaries, & interrogation & torture.   He scraped, scarred & pitted lacquer & acrylic so producing a raw effect OxDicMod, L&L
Patrons: Charles Saatchi OxDicMod
Wife: The painter Nancy Spero OxDicMod

*GONCALVES, Nuno, active 1450-70, Portugal:

Career: In 1463 he was court painter to Alfonso V (1437-81) L&L
Oeuvre/Characteristic: No works are known for certain but he was probably responsible for a St Vincent polyptych (Lisbon Museum) in a dry carefully but powerfully realistic style with carefully devised colours OxDicArt
Status: The leading Portuguese painter of the 15^th century L&L

*GONCHAROVA, Natalia, 1881-1982 Russia; 

Background: She came from a distinguished family OxDicArt
Training: 1898-1902 at the Moscow School Painting, Sculpture & Architecture, initially training as a sculptor  OxDicArt
Influences: From 1908 Cezanne, Gauguin, Matisse, etc; folk art  & children’s paintings, signboards; & then Cubism & Futurism OxDicArt, Petrova p154
Career: Her fellow student Larionov encouraged her to switch to painting.   He became her lifelong companion & collaborator.   During 1911-13 she engaged in avant-garde activities with Larionov.  In 1915 she left  Russia with Larionov; & in 1919 settled in Paris concentrating on theatrical design work & book illustration, although she painted intermittently OxDicMod
Oeuvre & Phases: After early Impressionism she developed a Neo-primitive style with ponderous & simplified forms using strong & contrasting colour.   These works are not poetic or, like Gauguin, dreamy.   They are a combination of peasant art & icon painting as in Getting in Wheat, 1908.   By 1913 she had moved to a near Abstract Rayonist style.  Her works have common features with those of Zinaida Serebryakova OxDicMod, Petrova pp 154-7
Beliefs: She was extremely pious & some works similar to those of early Christian art covey a religious feeling Petrova p157
Innovation: She was one of the first artists to challenge Impressionism & Symbolism with her own expressive art Petrova p155

-GONZALES, Eva, 1849-83, France:

Background: She was born in Paris into an intellectual family.   Her father was a well-known writer & her mother an accomplished musician.   Their house was a meeting point for critics & writers TurnerMtoC pp 212-3
Training: Under Charles Chaplin, an academician who ran a studio for women; then in 1867 Manet L&L
Career: She exhibited at the 1870 Salon & died following childbirth TurnerMtoC p213
Oeuvre: Modern-life subjects, still life, portraits etc in oils & pastels TurnerMtoC p213
Characteristics: Her work was Manet-like but modified so as to be acceptable to the Salon.   She showed an increasing interest in social themes L&L
Reception: Her  realist sympathies, dirsct paint handling & association with Manet provoked negative comment but her work was defended by Zola & other realist critics TurnerMtoC p213

..Frederick GOODALL, Frederick, confusable with Thomas Frederick (1857-1944) 1822-1904, England; Oriental, Troubadour Movement

Background: His father Edward, 1795-1870, began as a painter but was mainly an engraver ThompsonJ p92, Grove12 p925

Training: His father Grove12 p925

Influences: In Egypt he was amazed at the beauty, picturesqueness, colour & virgin subject matter ThompsonJ p92   

Career: He first exhibited at the RA, 1838; initially painted rural genre & landscapes often derived from sketching trips at home & abroad including Venice,  1857.  There were also British historical works as in An Episode in the Happier Days of Charles I, 1853 (Bury Art Gallery & Museum) which a critic welcomed as a novelty because Charles was usually painted in misfortune.  During 1858-9 he visited Egypt with Carl Haag lived in Cairo in the Coptic quarter & made expeditions, including one across the Red Sea.  He returned with 160 sketches, which he later worked up, exhibiting  his  first large [as in] oriental picture, Early Morning in the Wilderness of Shur (Guildhall Art Gallery) which gained critical & popular acclaim at the RA in 1860.  He was elected  to the RA, 1864; & revisited Egypt, 1870-7.  After great prosperity & the construction of an impressive house in Harrow by his friend Norman Shaw his popularity declined & went bankrupt, 1902  Grove 12 pp 925-26, ThompsonJ p92, M&M p49.

Characteristics: His work ranged from evocative watercolours featuring muted pink & stronger brown, together with white highlights & depicting Arabs & Islam in a sympathetic manner, as in Evening Prayers in the Desert, 1893 (NG of Ireland) to large richly coloured oils of a theatrical &  Orientalist type as in New Light in the Hareem, 1884 (The Walker, Liverpool).

Patrons: The great art dealer Ernest Gambart who bought his Episode painting, etc, & when he  no longer looked after Goodall’s financial interests Goodall’s bankruptcy became inevitable M&M p49, ThompsonJ p92

Verdict: Where it can be found it has been unfavourable with modern critics saying that he was not an inspired recorder of the Middle East; he painted old fashioned genre set in 18^th century costume; little of excitement is to be found in his Hareem work, & his paintings had “almost unrelieved tedium”; together with  the slightly less churlish statement that, although he continued to produce well-crafted works, he had the type of talent that developed quicky but soon lapsed into repetition & minor variation WoodC1999 p368, Reynolds pp 111,  114, Maas p97, ThompsonJ p92.  However, what is really remarkable is the way he has been ignored in standard sources or not itemised.  They  include Treuherz1993, the Yale Dictionary & The Oxford Companion.  Goodall’s work, in contrast to that of so many other Victorian artists does not appear to have been re-evaluated.

Collections: The Walker

Siblings: Walter Goodall, 1830-89; & Eliza, active around 1850 Grove12 p925

Sons: Frederick Trevelyan, 1848-71; & Howard, 1850-74 Wikip, WoodDic

Collections: The Walker

..Thomas Frederick GOODALL, confusable with Frederick Goodall, England; 1857-1944; England; Rural Naturalism

Background: He was born at Anerley, Surrey, the son of a civil servant clerk AskArtsite
Training: IS He became a student at the RA in 1873 & then at the City & Guilds Art School under John Sparks  Suffolk Artists site, AskArtsite
Influences: Bastien-Lepage JenkinsA p87
Career: He exhibited at the RA 1879-1901, began painting scenes of Norfolk in 1880, & in 1885 went with the photographer Peter Emerson for a cruise along the Norfolk Broads.  In 1886 they produced a folio of photos Life & Landscape on the Norfolk Broads.   He was a founder member of NEAC in 1886 WoodDic, JenkinsA p86, AskArtsite
Oeuvre: Paintings of landscape, coastal scenes & rustic genre WoodDic
Characteristics: Pleasing realist works from a low viewpoint at different times & in varying weather webimages
Feature: Although he used photos, he also appears to have made preparatory studies & avoiding copying JenkinsA p87
Friends: George Clausen Weisberg1992 p111
Grouping: Naturalism Weisberg1992 pp 112-3

GORE, Spencer, 1878-1914, England; British Impressionism Movement

Background: Born at Epsom, Surrey, into a distinguished family.   His father was a surveyor who won the Wimbledon championship & his uncle was a bishop OxDicMod
Training: 1896-9 at the Slade, where became he became a close friend of Gilman Harrison pp 21, 29, OxDicMod
Influences: Degas by way of Sickert Spalding 1986 p41.   Sickert taught him to explore composition by means of preliminary studies Harrison p27.    Gore admired the pure colour & broken touch of Pissaro & Signac Shone1977 p14.   His later & subsequent work was influenced by the Post-Impressionist Exhibition & Gauguin OxDicMod, L&L.
Career: In 1902 he visited Spain with his Slade contemporary Wyndham Lewis.   During 1904 Gore & Rutherston visited Sickert in  Dieppe & Gore became a close friend.   During 1905 & 1906 he was again in France & acquired  an Impressionist technique OxDicArt, OxDicMod, Shone1977 p14.   He met Lucian Pissaro & learned about Post Impressionism Harrison p28.   In 1908, 1911 & 1913 he was a founder member of the Allied Artists’ Association & the Camden & London Groups OxDicArt.   During1908-9 he painted a lovely series of landscapes in Hertfordshire Shone1977 p14.   His work was included at the second Post-Impressionist Exhibition OxDicArt
Oeuvre: Landscapes, music-hall scenes (which he often visited with Sickert), interiors & the occasional still-life OxDicMod
Phases: Soon after Sickert’s return to London in 1905, Gore abandoned the subdued tonal painting which was a legacy of Whistler & the Slade.   He now used saturated colour & a broken touch for vivid, brightly lit scenes Shone1977 p14,Harrison p27.    His later pictures display a vivid use of flat bright colour & boldly simplified forms OxDicMod
Verdict: His Alhambra Ballet pictures were among the most beautiful British paintings of the 20^th century Harrison p28
Friends: Rothenstein etc Harrison pp 26-7
Personal: Rutter said he was the most lovable man he had ever known OxDicMod
Influence:  Sickert, as shown by his lighter palette & drier application of paint after 1906 Shone1977 pp 14-5

 *GORKY, Archile, 1905-48, USA (Armenia):

Background: He was born in Armenia OxDicArt
Teacher: Gorky was self-taught Hughes p470.   Rhode Island School of Design Everitt p11
Influences: At first Impressionism; then Cezanne; Picasso, Braque & Gris during 1929-34; in the late 1930s Miro & Masson; during the early 1940s Kandinsky Hughes p470, L&L, Everitt p11
Career: In 1916 the family fled from the  Turks, & in 1920 he went to the USA & to New York in 1924.   During 1926-31 he taught at the Grand Central Art School & in 1935 painted murals for the Federal Art Project.   His painting became looser during the late 1930s with forms that hovered between abstraction & representation, the paint became thinner, his forms biomorphic & his colours passionate.   In 1946 he was found to have cancer.   He committed suicide after a car crash L&L.   During the early 1940s he was a friend to immigrant European Surrealists OxDicArt
Style: He was never happy with geometrical abstraction & adapted Cubist techniques to own more expressive & painterly purposes.    Under Surrealist influences he became an abstractionist using biomorphic forms akin to those of Miro OxDicArt.   Gorky was a talented draftsman Hughes p471
Subject Matter: This was erotic, with his pictures swarming with cunts, cocks etc.   His pictures contain enraptured memories of Armenia Hughes p473

*GOSSART/GOSSAERT, Jan or Mabuse, c1478-1532, Belgium; Northern Renaissance:

Influences: Hugo Van der Goes & Gerard David prior to his Roman visit; Durer; & de Barbari’s nudes OxDicArt, Fuchs p31, Clark1956  p334

Career: He became a master in Antwerp, 1503; entered the service of Philip of Burgundy, around 1507; & accompanied him to the Vatican, 1508 L&L; entered some sort of partnership with de’Barbari, 1509; moved to Utrecht after Philip became its bishop, 1517; after Philip’s death in 1524 he moved to Middelburg in The Netherlands, now in the service of Adolf of Burgundy L&L, Clark1956 pp 332, 334, Haak p17

Oeuvre: Religious & mythological paintings; together with portraits as in An Elderly Couple, a spectacular depiction of stoical, dignified old age, c1510-28 L&L, Langmuir pp 116-7

Speciality: Nudes Clark1956 p334

First Belgian painter to study ancient sculpture systematically & to see Raphael & Michelangelo at close range Haak p17

Phases: His Roman trip has a momentous impact both on his art & on painting in the Low Countries.  Previously it had been rooted in the work of Van Eyck & Van der Weyden.  With assistance from other Romanists this tradition was now rejected in favour of an Italianate Renaissance style based on Greco-Roman sculpture, anatomical studies & mathematical perspective as in Neptune & Amphitrite, 1516, in which monumental, idealised & secular figures are enhanced in light & reflected light recalling the modelling of his Roman drawings (Bode Museum, Berlin Langmuir p116, Grove13 pp25-6

Verdict: Some of his nudes are highly polished but others an unsatisfactory mix of Italian & painstaking Flemish styles Clark1956 p334

Grouping: Northern Renaissance Vale p98

Pupil: Briefly Van Score OxDicArt

..GOTCH, Thomas Cooper, 1854-1931, England; Rural Naturalism

Background: Born Kettering into a leading non-conformist family involved in boots, shoes & banking Fox&G p173

Training: At Hatherly’s in London 1876-77; & then at the Antwerp Academy under Charles Verlat, 1877-8; & the Slade under Alphonse Legros 1878-80 [check]; & Laurens’ atelier in Paris, 1881 wikip, Grove13 p30, Hepburn pp 8-9, 11-2, Fox&G pp 173-74

Influences: Whistler’ tonal & compositional innovations, & Bastien-Lepage Grove 13 p30, Fox&G p174

Career: Initially he worked in his father’s business; married & lived in France, 1881; went briefly to Australia, 1884;  & settled in Newlyn 1887; was involved in the formation of NEAC, 1886-7; was disappointed at the poor hanging of Sharing Fish at the RA, 1891; spent the winter of 1891-2 in Florence; My Crown & Sceptre was a great success, 1892; & his [as in] Alleluia (Tate Gallery) was bought by the Chantry Bequest, 1896.  Portraits were his mainstay throughout his life Grove13 p30, Fox&G 173-77, Hepburn pp 19-20, wikip

Oeuvre: Landscapes, genre works, decorative pictures & portraits Hepburn p21, Grove13 p30, webimages

Phases: His early Newlyn School paintings as in Sharing Fish, 1891 (Messums) were painted in muted tones & featured scenes of local life but with His painting was transformed by his visit to Florence  & its 15^th century painting.  This ushered in a new sense of purpose, a delight in colour  Another factor was his growing daughter & the innocence & beauty of childhood.  His most important works were vaguely symbolist during the 1890  Fox&G p177, Hepburn pp 17-19, 23

Characteristics/Verdict: His mature work features idealised & richly clothed girls, young women & mothers.  They are decorative, stilted & largely static situated in & land featuring Italianate settings as in Holy Motherhood, 1902 (Laing Art Gallery, Newcastle)

Feature: [His later works are complete departure from the world of reality & the current social scene.  They are manifestly studio works of an unwholesome & creepy nature: the polar opposite of works depicting the New Woman & of children bathing that were then being painted in Denmark & then Newlyn.]

Friends: Henry Scott Tuke who was a fellow student at the Slade; Stanhope Forbes; & Whistler although he had a row with him over hanging at the Society of British Artists in 1886 Grove13 p30, Fox&G pp 173- 75

GOTTLIEB, Adolph, 1903-74, Poland:

Background: New York OxDicMod
Training: At New York art schools, & then in Paris Everitt p29
Influences: The primitive art he studied & collected.   Expatriate Surrealists from 1941, together with Freud & Surrealist doctrine of unconscious as source of artistic material OxDicArt, L&L
Career: He made a trip to Europe in 1921-3.   From 1935 to 1940 he exhibited with The Ten, an expressionists group dedicated to Expressionism & Abstraction,.   In 1935 he worked for the Federal Art Project & then in 1937-8 he lived in the Arizona desert, painting landscapes with a Surrealist air.   He returned to New York in 1939 & had contact with expatriate European Surrealists & became interested in Freudianism & the subconscious as a source for artistic inspiration.   During 1941-51 he painted his Pictograph series & from 1951 to 1957, & the mid 1960s, on his Imaginary Landscapes OxDicMod
Oeuvre: Paintings & stained glass designs for churches & synagogues OxDicArt
Phases/Characteristics: His early work was Expressionist OxDicMod.   From 1941 his works were compartmentalised arrangements of signs & invented hieroglyphs echoing primitive art & seeking to symbolise states of mind.   He later reduced the number of divisions & enlarged the motifs.   Ultimately in the Burst series of 1957-74 he justaposed an explosive form & a quiescent one L&L, OxDicArt
Beliefs: initially Marxism Ashton1972 p72
Circle: Rothco & Newman L&L
Status: Abstract Expressionism OxDicMod

GOUDT, Hendrick, c1580-1648, Netherlands:

Training: Elsheimer? L&L
Career: Goudt was a nobleman & amateur engraver who from about 1604 rented rooms from Elsheimer & bought his paintings Haak p187, L&L
Oeuvre: Engravings of Elsheimer’s paintings made them available in Netherlands from 1608 L&L
Influences: Rembrandt was influenced by the dark tones of the night scenes L&L

..GOWING, Sir Lawrence, 1918-91, England:

Background: He was born in London OxDicMod
Training: Under Coldstream privately  & at the Euston Road School, 1936-8 OxDicMod
Career: He taught at the future Newcastle University, 1948-58; Leeds University, 1967-75; & at the Slade , 1975-85.   From 1965 to 1967 he was deputy director of the Tate, & had a long association with the Arts Council
Oeuvre: Landscapes, still life & portraits; & also abstracts etc OxDicMod
Characteristics: Much of his work was in the sombre Euston Road style OxDicMod
Politics: He was an active member of the Hogarth Group (Communist Party artists group) but only Communist Party member for about three months in 1938-9 M&R p23

***GOYA Y LUCIENTES, Francisco de, 1746-1828, Spain:

-GOWER, George, active 1573-96, England:

Background/Feature: He was born into the armigerous gentry Grove13 p239
Career: By 1573 he was an accomplished portrait painter in London with wealthy, well-connected sitters.  In 1581 he became Serjeant Painter for life & in probably painted the celebrated [as in] Armada Portrait of Queen Elizabeth,1588 (Woburn Abbey), & for a time lived at court Grove13 p239-40, Waterhouse1953 p34
Oeuvre: Portraits & artisan work Grove13 pp 239-40
Characteristics: He had a bold clear-cut style characterised by strongly modelled features & prominent eyes, employing a warm palette with dark backgrounds often enriched with coats of arms.  His figures mostly wear elaborate clothing.  In his later work the face is expressionless this being a design feature Grove13 p239-40, webimages.
Status: He was the most fashionable painter in England during the 1570s & 80s Hayes1991 p12

Goyen.   See Van Goyen

-GOZ, Gottfried Berhard, 1708-74, Germany; Rococo

Background: Born Velehrad, Moravia Grove13 p258.
Training: He was apprenticed during 1726-7 to Franz Eckstein in Brunn (Brno) whose frescos conveyed ideas from Annibale Carracci, Giovanni Lanfranco & Andrea Poozzo; during 1729-30 he worked with Johann Bergmuller; & from 1730 he trained with Johann Rothbletz  L&L
Career: He worked as a master from 1733 & was soon recognised as an important painter & graphic artist especially for his coloured engravings.  He In 1744 he became court painter & engraver to the Emperor Charles VII.   His principal work was the ceiling fresco at Birnau in the Wallfahrtskirche pilgrimage church where the colours harmonise with the colour scheme of the architecture.  They are no longer merely extensions of church space but are paintings in their own right.  He founded a publishing business Hempel p247, L&L, Grove13 p258.
Oeuvre: Frescoes, portraits, miniatures & engravings.   He executed many frescos & altarpieces in Swabia & Bavaria Grove13 p258, L&L
Characteristics/Verdict: His compositions are daring & jubilant. The skilful use of colour & light & well positioned figures demonstrates his capacity as a mature painter Hempel p247. Grove13 p258

GOZZOLI/Benozzo di Lese, c1422-09, Italy=Florence:

Background: He was born in Florence Grove13 p259
Training etc: he was Fra Angelico’s pupil & assistant around 1440 & then during 1447-9 at the Vatican & Orvieto cathedral L&L
Influences: Veneziano, Francesca, Lippi, Castletagno L&L
Career/Verdict: he was originally trained as a goldsmith & worked with Ghiberti on the doors of the Baptistry in Florence; 1459-61 painted The Journey of the Magi in the chapel of the Palazzo Medici producing what were the most glittering frescos of the century.  However, the rest of his work was undistinguished OxDicArt
Characteristics: Modern perspective together with an archaism that recalls International Gothic.   His work was linear yet colourful, ornate & full of incident L&L
Innovations: He initiated the reversion to Late Gothic forms with his frescos in the Medici chapel Grove26 p186

-GRABAR, Igor, 1871-1960, Russia; Tzarist Impressionism Movement

Background: He was born in Budapest RA1900 p388
Training: From 1894 at the Academy of Arts, St Petersburg, under Repin; & in Munich with Anton Azbe RA1900 p388
Career: In 1880 he went to Russia with his mother A&Y p3.  He graduated in law prior to art training.   Between 1896 & 1901 he travelled in Europe absorbing fin-de-siecle influences but with a continuing fascination for Impressionism.   In 1901 he joined Mir Iskusstva/World of Art & exhibited during 1901-5.  During 1904 he painted February Sky-blue & March Snow.   Recalling his works  of 1904 he said he was “painting with such passion that I simply hurled paint onto the canvas, as if in a frenzy, without much reflection, trying only to evoke the blinding impression made on me by this life-enhancing  fanfare of colour”.  During 1910-5 he edited a 30 volume History of Russian Art.   He became a professor at the Imperial Academy of Arts in 1913 & during the Revolution sought refuge with other intellectuals at the Lavra Monastery/Zagorsk.   After the Revolution he taught at the Moscow Free Art Studios & became  director of the Tretyakov, where he oversaw the restoration & cataloguing of the icon collection which was augumented through church closure & confiscations. RA1900 p388, A&Y p6, RARev p209.   Grabar became a member of  the Society of  Moscow Artists in the 1920s.   He was the only painter to speak at the at the first All Union Congress of Soviet Writers,1934, at which  Andrei Zhdanov made Socialist Realism the party line Swanson p14, Bown1991 pp 90, 242   Although Jewish he flourished during the anti-semite ccampaign after the war Bown1991 pp 208-9.
Oeuvre: Landscapes
Speciality: Depictions of Lenin RA1900 p388

-Anton GRAFF, Anton, 1736-1813, Germany (Switzerland):

Career: He settled in Dresden where he was court painter to the Elector of Saxony L&L
Speciality: Portraits of the best-known German contemporary poets, musicians & philosophers L&L
Characteristics: His portraits sometimes recall Reynolds in their direct & penetrating characterisation but his more elegant society pieces are Gainsborough-like OxDicArt

 -Urs GRAFF, c1485-1527, Switzerland:

Career: He was a goldsmith, brawler & enlisted several times as a mercenary for campaigns in Italy & France L&L
Oeuvre: Prints, pen-&-ink drawings, & stained glass design L&L
Characteristics: From about 1511 he depicted the swaggering, lustful & bloody life of soldiers of fortune & camp followers.   Some mythological figures & a few religious scenes stress lascivious & sadistic aspects.   There are also genre scenes of Basle street life & Alpine landscapes L&L.  The style of his drawings was bold & energetic using virtuoso curling strokes OxDicArt
Innovations: In 1513 he made the first dated etching L&L
Collections: Print room, Basel Kunstsammlung

 -GRAHAM, John, 1881-1961, Russia/USA:

Background: He was born in Kiev L&L
Career: Graham was part of Moscow’s avant-garde.   In 1920 he went to the USA.   Here he influenced a circle of younger artists, including Gorky, introducing them to Surrealist theory & Parisian new art L&L
Verdict: He was a “charismatic poseur riddled with delusions of grandeur” Hughes p469
Beliefs: Graham advocated minimalist painting, self-sufficient & using the simplest of means L&L.   In a 1937 article he said that children, naifs & primitive peoples have fuller access to the collective unconscious: to a wisdom of inherited images that nourish art Hughes p470
Oeuvre: His forte was symbolic portraits & figure paintings with highly mannered, Ingres-like contours Hughes p470
Influence: Graham was Pollock’s mentor, introducing him to Jung’s ideas Hughes pp 470-1

 -GRAN, Daniel, 1694-1757, Austria; Baroque

Career: During 1726-30 he painted frescoes at the imperial library, the Hofbibliothek, Vienna L&L
Oeuvre: Frescos in palaces & churches together with altarpieces L&L
Phases: His compositional skill, sometimes lacking in his earlier work, matured through the study of Rottmayr’s art Hempel p116
Status: He was the outstanding Austrian Baroque painter L&L

GRANACCI, Francesco, 1477-1543, Italy=Florence:

Training: Lorenzo di Credi & Ghirlandaio OxDicArt
Influences: Pontormo L&L
Career: In 1508 he advised Michelangelo –a former fellow student- on fresco technique for the Sistine Chapel.  Around 1515 he collaborated on the decoration of the Borgherini bedroom L&L
Characteristics: His work is unadventurous, agreeable & fairly like Fra Bartolommeo’s OxDicArt
Grouping: High Renaissance OxDicArt
Collections: Accademia, Florence

 *GRANET, Francois 1775-1849, France: Troubadour Movement

Background: He was born in Aix-en-Provence L&L
Training: Under David L&L
Career: From 1802 to 1819 he was in Italy & in 1821 he visited Assisi L&L.   In 1826 became curator of the Louvre& in 1830 Keeper of Pictures at Versailles.   During the 1848 Revolution he retired to Aix where he founded the museum OxDicArt
Oeuvre: His subjects ranged from history to scenes of Italian religious & secular life L&L.   His work included numerous small Italian plein air oil & watercolour sketches similar to those of Valenciennes.   They are mostly of ruins & buildings but there are some landscapes, ranging from good to brilliant Musee Granet Aix
Characteristics: His work features sombre tonal effects & changing light in dimly lit interiors OxDicArt.   Only his later church pictures display piety Honour1979 p161
Feature: His Choir of the Capuchin Church in Rome, which was exhibited at the 1819 Salon, was so successful that he made sixteen copies OxDicArt
Pupil: Bonvin Norman 1977
Collections: The Musee Granet, Aix

GRABAR, Igor, 1871-1960, Russia:

Background: He was born in Budapest & his father was a lawyer RA1900 p388

Training: From 1894 at the Academy of Arts, St Petersburg, under Repin; & in Munich with Anton Azbe RA1900 p388

Influences: Frans Hals was his favourite portraitist A&Y p10

Career: In 1880 he went to Russia with his mother A&Y p3.  He graduated in law prior to art training.   Between 1896 & 1901 he travelled in Europe absorbing fin-de-siecle influences but with a continuing fascination for Impressionism.   In 1901 he joined Mir Iskusstva/World of Art & exhibited during 1901-5.  During 1904 he painted February Sky-blue & March Snow.   Recalling his works  of 1904 he said he was “painting with such passion that I simply hurled paint onto the canvas, as if in a frenzy, without much reflection, trying only to evoke the blinding impression made on me by this life-enhancing  fanfare of colour”.

During 1910-5 he edited a 30 volume History of Russian Art.   He became a professor at the Imperial Academy of Arts in 1913 & during the Revolution sought refuge with other intellectuals at the Lavra Monastery/Zagorsk.   After the Revolution he taught at the Moscow Free Art Studios & became  director of the Tretyakov, where he oversaw the restoration & cataloguing of the icon collection which was argumented through church closure & confiscations. RA1900 p388, A&Y p6, RARev p209.   Grabar became a member of  the Society of  Moscow Artists in the 1920s.   He was the only painter to speak at the at the first All Union Congress of Soviet Writers,1934, at which  Andrei Zhdanov made Socialist Realism the party line Swanson p14, Bown1991 pp 90, 242   Although Jewish he flourished during the anti-semite campaign after the war Bown1991 pp 208-9. 

Oeuvre: Landscapes, portraits, still life, history paintings A&Y

Speciality: Depictions of Lenin RA1900 p388

Characteristics: His favourite tree, the birch, is present in nearly all his landscapes.   Their skies are often begin with a glowing  cobalt cum azure blue.   He painted in a wide range of colour extending from glowing red, through mellow orange-brown to pale pink A&Y pp 6, 29, 34, 37, 47, 49, 51, 57, 69, 71.  His works are joyous & to use a term he himself employed  life enhancing A&Y pp 39,  

Status/Legacy: [He was the eminence grise of  Socialist-Realist-Impressionism.   He took part  in a meeting in 1933 which paved the way for Socialist Realism & was attended by Stalin, Voroshilove, Brodski, Aleksandr  Gerasimov  & Katsman.   It is portrayed in Artists at a Meeting  with Stalin & Voroshilov from which it is clear that Grabar was member of the Soviet inner circle,.   This is also shown by his portrait Svetlana, 1933 Bown1991 p92,  A&Y p61.

Grouping: Impressionism Swanson p14.

 ..GRANGES, David des, c1612-1670s:

Background: He came from a Guernsey family but was born in London Waterhouse1953 pp 64, 123
Oeuvre: He was an uneven portraitist & a minor miniaturist Waterhouse1953 p123

Duncan GRANT, 1885-1978, England; British Impressionism Movement

Background: He was from an ancient Scottish family & his father was an army officer OxDicMod

Training: 1902-5 at the Westminster School of Art; 1906-7 at the Academie de la Palette under Blanche; & in 1907 at the Slade for six months OxDicMod

Influences: Recent French painting & from about 1913 African sculpture OxDicArt

Career: His early childhood was spent in Burma with his father.   In 1907, through his cousin Lytton Strachey, he joined the Bloomsbury Group.   He met Matisse in 1909 & Picasso soon afterwards.   In 1912 he showed at the second Post Impressionist exhibition.   During 1913-19 he worked for the Omega Workshops & after their closure on interior decoration work, often collaborating with Vanessa Bell, with whom he lived from 1916 at Charleston Farmhouse OxDicMod

Phases: Until about 1910 his works were fairly sober in form & restrained in colour.   However, in response to the second Post-Impressionist exhibition, he then became one of most advanced British artists with an Abstract interlude around 1915.   However he reverted to a figurative style OxDicMod, L&L

Oeuvre: Portraits, landscapes & interiors L&L

Characteristics: Decorative works on untroubling themes with his best work painted in a distinctive range of fresh colours Harrison149

Verdict: Opinions about his quality differ widely.   According to Charles Harrison, his worst paintings are unrealistic, unoriginal & lacking much interpretative quality.   At his rare best, especially before the early 1920s, they convey a mood of relaxed & unprovocative hedonism in distinctive fresh colours casually applied.   He had no great originality in formal organisation Harrison p150.   According to Sir John Rothenstein, his work showed tasteful intelligence but insufficient passion OxDicMod.  However, another authority, Richard Shone, is more enthusiastic.   He rates Grant among the most innovative artists in England from around 1912 to1920 & says that during the inter-war period his pictures had a consistent unemphatic realism displaying a pacific contemplation of their surroundings TurnerEtoPM pp 79-80. 

Personal: Basically he was a homosexual but he had a daughter with Bell, 1918 OxDicMod

..Sir Francis GRANT, 1803-78, Scotland:

Background: He was the fourth son of the Laird of Kilgraston Maas p72
Training: He was largely self-taught but lessons from John Fernley, who became a close friend Treuherz1993 p14, Maas p72
Influences: Velazquez though he boasted of never having visited Italy or studied the Old Masters Maas pp 213, 215
Career: He spent two years at Harrow & also went to Edinburgh High School.   By the age of 26 he had exhausted a fortune of around £10,000.    He then turned to art to support his foxhunting at Melton Mobray, etc.   In 1837 he made his name with his RA painting H.M. Staghounds on Ascot Heath, & in 1839 Victoria commissioned him to paint The Queen Riding at Winsor with her Gentlemen Maas p72, Gillett p18.  He became an RA in 1851, PRA in 1866 & he married the Duke of Rutland’s niece Maas pp 72-3, Gillett p19.
Speciality: Equestrian portraits of fashionable ladies & pictures of hunting & shooting parties Wood1999 p278, Maas p72
Characteristics: He had a convincing style displaying a kind of Romantic flamboyance & without the occasional stiffness of his contemporaries Maas p72
Status: He was one of the most fashionable portraitists of his day OxDicArt
Verdict:  Grant was a talented portraitist but his smaller sporting Conversations were his best work Wood1999 p277, OxDicArt

-GRAVELOT, Hubert, 1699-1773, France:

Teacher: Boucher Vaughan 2002 p24
Career: During 1733-55 he was mostly in England L&L, OxDicArt.   By 1739 he was a leading light at Old Slaughter’s coffee house, where he endeared himself by being anti-Burlington & connoisseur.   He ran a drawing School off the Strand BurkeJ pp 168-9.
Oeuvre: Engraver & illustrator of most of the important books published in London, including Gay, Shakespeare, Dryden, Pamela, Tom Jones L&L, OxDicArt
Characteristics: He had a fine & sensitive line; made a cult of the  silhouette; & his depictions of the texture of materials, & the cut & hang of costume, were well observed BurkeJ p169
Verdict: Opinions differ: on the one hand his talent was not outstanding, though he was at his strongest when depicting contemporary life, &, on the other hand, he was a brilliant draftsman OxDicArt, Vaughan 2002 p24
Innovation: He was one of the first artists to illustrate novels OxDicArt
Grouping: Rococo BurkeJ p168
Influence: He was the main purveyor of the Rococo style to Britain & a friend of Hogarth OxDicArt, L&L.   He set mush higher standard of elegance than Mercier & other French predecessors.   His costume studies & depictions of children’s games provided a repertory of images for painters & porcelain decorators  BurkeJ p169
Pupil: Gainsborough around 1740 Vaughan 2002 p216

.. Abbott GRAVES, 1859-1936, USA;  US  Impressionism:

Background: Born Weymouth, Massachusetts NGArtinP p241
Training: The School of Design, Massachusetts Institute of Technology; with the flower painter Georges Jeannin in Paris, 1884; & back in Paris for figure painting , 1887, at the Academie Julien under Fernand Cormon, Jean-Paul Laurnes & Paul Gervais   NGArtinP p241, Wikip
Career: He established a studio in Boston in the early 1880s & from around 1885 taught at Cowles School of Art.   In 1887 he returned to Paris where he & his wife joined the American colony, befriended Childe Hassam, & exhibited at the Salons in 1888 & 1889, & at the Exposition Universelle.   He returned to Boston in 1991, lived in the coastal town of Kennebunkport Maine & established his own school but returned to Paris during 1902-5 NGArtinP p241, Wikip
Oeuvre: Works in oils & watercolour including floral still-lifes, genre scenes featuring famers, fishermen, old sea captains etc, NGArtinP p241
Phases: After 1891 most paintings are floral landscapes, & gardens some of which are exotic Wikip
Characteristics: His work is of a pleasing, decorative nature often featuring bright colours & of an Impressionist type as in A Summer’s Day, 1916
Friends: Edmund Tarbell whom he met at Jeannin’s & with whom he spent a winter in Venice NGArtinP pp241, 260

*Morris GRAVES, 1910-2001, USA:

Background: Born at Fox Valley, Oregon OxDicMod
Training: Mainly self-taught but with some instruction from Mark Tobey OxDicMod
Influences: Oriental art as seen when he was a seaman, 1928-30 OxDicMod
Career: During 1932-64 he lived in or near Seattle but then moved to north-west California.  He lived as isolated as he could, studied with Father Divine in Haarlem in 1937, worked for the Federal Art Project, was imprisoned in 1942 for refusing to do war service, & tried unsuccessfully to go & help at Hiroshima OxDicMod, L&L
Oeuvre: Paintings mostly of birds & small animals with a keen eye for their attitudes & poses OxDicMod
Characteristics: His work is Surrealistic, visionary, hypnotic, tender & lyrical.  In the 1960s he turned to three-dimensional constructions OxDicMod
Beliefs: He was deeply religious OxDicMod

..GREAVES, Derrick, 1927-2002, England:

Background: He was born in Sheffield OxDicMod
Training: After apprenticeship as a sign writer, at the Royal College of Art, 1948-53 OxDicMod
Influences: Renato Guttuoso, & later on Matisse’s late collages & Ellsworth Kelly OxDicMod
Career/Grouping: In the 1950s he was a leading & the most openly political member of the Kitchen Sink School.  He visited Russia with John Berger’s Looking at People exhibition, 1957, & supported CND.   During 1983-91 he taught at art schools and was head of painting at Norwich College of Art OxDicMod
Oeuvre: Paintings, murals, graphic art OxDicMod
Phases: He used heavy impasto in his realist paintings but subsequently became disillusioned with figurative painting & turned to geometric abstraction using more even paintwork with a greater emphasis on colour OxDicMod, webimages

Grebber.   See de Grebber

Greco.  See El Greco

.. GREAVES, Walter, 1846-1930, England:

Background: Born in London, the son of a Chelsea boat-builder who had been Turner’s boatman  Grove13 pp 336-37
Career/Reception: He met Whistler, 1863, & became his boatman & studio assistant.  However, in the late 1860s when Whistler began to have sophisticated friends Greaves was never seen if Whistler could help it, though he continued to undertake odd jobs.  Joseph & Elizabeth Pennell who were as combative as Whistler claimed that Greaves was a plagiarist & Greaves, who had just achieved recognition, spent the last eight years of his life in a charitable foundation Grove13 pp 336-337, & 24 p364, Weintraub pp 137, 244, 274-75,283
Oeuvre: Paintings & etchings Grove13 p336
Characteristics/Speciality: His works are well constructed,  highly accomplished & diverse.  They range widely from colourful paintings packed with incident & figures as in Hammersmith Bridge on Boat Race Day, c1862 (The Tate) to tranquil, empty scenes in muted colour as in Old Battersea Bridge, 1874 (The Tate, both).  Although the Thames was his speciality, he also painted notable, spirited street scenes of a genre nature as in Lawrence Street Chelsea (Old Admiralty Building, London, Whitehall)
Verdict:  He has been regarded as a master of primitive art Grove13 p337. [This is wide of the mark.  Although  his works are masterly, they are certainly not primitive.]
Legacy: Greaves & his brother introduced Whistler to the delights of the Thames Grove13 p337
Repute: He is not itemised in the Oxford Companion.
Brother: Henry 1850-1900, was also a painter Wikip

Grebber.   See de GrebberGrecheto.   See Castletiglione
Greco.  See El Greco

-GREENAWAY, Kate, 1846-1901, England:

Training: Islington school of Art, Heatherley’s, & the Slade WoodDic
Career: She lived in London WoodDic
Oeuvre: She illustrated children’s books including her own L&L.  Watercolours & drawings of children some of which were exhibited WoodDic:
Characteristics: Childhood is lightly & innocently portrayed in an age of innocence & happiness L&L.   Her works display delicate skill & fragile sentimentality OxDicArt
Verdict: She was often imitated but never rivalled OxDicArt
Feature: Ruskin & Gauguin (sic) admired her work OxDicArt
Influenced: a wide range of North European art L&L

-GREENE, Balcolm, 1904-1990, USA:

Background:  He was born at Niagara Falls OxDicMod
Training: Largely self-taught OxDicMod
Career: After study under Freud & teaching English literature, he began to paint seriously in 1931 & lived in Paris, 1931-3.   He settled in New York  & was a founder & first chair of the American Abstract Artists, 1935.   During 1936-9 he worked for the Federal Art Project painting several abstract murals L&L
Characteristics/Phases: By 1935 his work was wholly abstract but later it became less geometric with the use of colour in loose, expressive configurations OxDicMod, L&L

..GREENHILL, John, c1640-76, England:

Background: He was born at Salisbury where his uncle was an Alderman W&M p179
Teacher: Lely Waterhouse1953 p111
Career: He went to London where he became Lely’s assistant, & mixed with & drew stage people.   He kept raffish company & indulged lose living.   His died early after a drunken orgy Hayes1991 p19, W&M pp 179-80
Phases: His early work is pedestrian & unsophisticated.   Later it was Lely-like but with a broader technique & lacking a sense of volume W&M p179
Characteristics: He evolved a simplified & fresher version of Lely’s style of late 1660s & early1670s W&M p179
Patron: Shaftesbury W&M p179
Verdict: He was one of the few British-born Restoration painters who showed real promise Waterhouse1953 p111

-GREENWOOD, John, 1727-92, USA=Boston:

Background: He was born in Boston Grove13 p624
Training: He was apprenticed to the Boston engraver Thomas Johnson Grove13 p624
Career: From 1750 he had a virtual monopoly of the Boston portrait market; went to Paramaribo in Surinam, 1752, where must have also dominated the market; left for Amsterdam, 1758, & began buying Dutch Old Masters for English Collectors; & went to London by 1763, & became a prominent auctioneer L&L, Grove13 p624
Oeuvre: Portraits & engravings including a genre work & a urban scene L&L, Grove13 p624, webimages
Characteristics: His style was less solemn than that of most colonial painters L&L
Innovation:  He produced the first-known genre work by an American, the hectic Sea Captains Carousing in Surinam, c1755 (Art Museum, St Louis)  L&L
Circle: He was an associate of Peter Pelham L&L
Influenced: Copley L&L

..GREGORIO, Marcus de, 1829-76, Italy:

Background: He was born in Resina Norman1977
Influences: Palizzi, especially in his use of vivid contrasting colours Norman1977
Career: After fighting with Garibaldi he spent three years in Egypt, then returned to Naples.   There Greg0rio collaborated with de Nittis and other anti-academic painters, working outdoors around Resina Norman1977
Oeuvre: He was a plein air painter Norman1977
Grouping: With de Nittis, he was one of the leaders of the School of Resina Norman1977

..GREGORY, Edward John, 1850-1909 England:

Background: He was born in Southampton WoodDic
Training: At the Royal College of Art & the RA Schools  WoodDic
Career: He entered P& O’s drawing office but decided to become an artist  & went to London in 1869.   During 1871-5 he worked for The Graphic, exhibited at the RA from 1875 & became a member in 1898 after painting his most famous work Boulter’s Lock: Sunday Afternoon .   The result of many years labour it is amazingly lively WoodDic , WoodC1976  p179
Oeuvre: Genre, portraits & illustrations WoodDic

..GREINER, Otto, 1869-1916, Germany:

Background: He was born at Leipzig Grove13 p632
Training: Akademie der Bilodenden Kunst, Munich under Sandor Liezen-Mayer Grove13 p632
Influences: Max Kinger GibsonM p233
Career: In 1891 he visited Florence & Rome & befriended Max Klinger.  During 1892-8 he lived in Munich & Leipzig & in 1898 moved to Rome until forced to leave in 1915 Grove13 p632
Oeuvre: Paintings based on careful drawings of antique & fantastic subjects, erotic female nudes, portraiture & prints Grove13 p632
Beliefs: He saw the nude as the epitome of natural beauty & the basis of all stylistic formation Grove13 p632
Characteristics: Griener’s works embody a sense of evil Lucie-S1972 pp 156-7
Grouping: Symbolism GibsonM p233
Collections: Leipzig Museum

..GREKOV, Mitofan, 1882-1934, Russia:

Background: He belonged to a Cossack family Wikip
Training: At the Odessa Art School, 1899-1903; & the Academy of Arts,1903-11, under Ilya Repin; & Franz Roubaud, helping him paint war scenes  Bown1991 p242
Career: From 1912 he served in the Life Guards Ataman Regiment, fought in the Great War, &  was a Red Army volunteer from 1920 until around 1925.   He was an active member of the Association of Artists of Revolutionary Russia/AKhRR from 1925 Bown1991 p242, Grove13 p633
Oeuvre/Characteristics: Military scenes of a realist type often painted with great verve as in First Cavalry Army Trumpeters, 1934 (The Tretyakov)
Status: He was regarded as the originator of Soviet battle paintings Wikip
Verdict: His civil war scenes were often of good quality but his battle scenes became much less spontaneous during the Stalinist era Bown1991 p62, Grove13 p633
Collections: House Museum of Mitrofan Grekov, Novocherkassk, Rostov oblast; & the Tretyakov

**GREUZE, Jean-Baptiste, 1725-1805, France; 18th Century Realism and Neo-Classicism

..GRIEBEL, Otto,  1895-1972, Germany=Dresden:

Background: Dresden was a centre for the Neue Sachlichkeit movement  Hayward1979 p18
Influences: Otto Dix Willett p188
Career: He was a Dadaist in Dresden who joined  a Red Group of Communist artists which was formed in June 1924 & allied to the KPD.   Later that year his work was shown at an exhibition of German art in Russia.   He joined the German Revolutionary Artists Association (ARBKD), a Communist organisation  which was set up in 1928, & produced work of the favoured type, as in his Die International, 1929 (Deutschers Historizes, Berlin) of its favoured  type.  After the Nazis took power, he was put in goal & his work Willett pp 83, 114, 173, 188, 221, Hayward1979 p10
Oeuvre: Paintings in oils & watercolour, drawings in watercolour & Indian ink, early collage abstracts, nudes attractive & unattractive, etc webimages
Phases: After the Great War & period of experiment he joined the Verist left wing of the realist Neue Sachlichkeit movement Hayward1979 p11, webdata.  See Neue Sachlichkeit in Section 8.
Feature: A considerable number of the proletarians in Die Internationale are staring blankly with open mouths which makes them look goofy See Willett p188
Verdict: He was gifted & painted an excellent self-portrait in a cafe setting, 1928 Willet pp 116-7

*GRIEN, Hans Baldung, 1484/5-1545, Germany; Northern Renaissance, Early Italian (excluding altar pieces) Fantasy

Background: He was probably born at Schwabisch Gmund, Bavaria, into a professional & scholarly family Brinkmann p19; Johannes Geiler von Kaisersberg, 1445-1510,  Dr of Theology Freiburg & a Preacher at Strassburg Cathedral was a witchcraft expert.  Grien probably knew Geiler & must have known his views as his brother was Rector at the University of  Freiburg, & Grien  illustrated Geiler’s sermons Brinkmann p19, Davidson p20.  Geiler made a great contribution to Strasbourg’s liberal atmosphere, which had infrequent witch trials.  He thought that witchcraft was only harmful because of the Devil’s intervention.  The latter tricks women into believing they fly & cause damage: we too must avoid this delusion Brinkmann pp 31-33.  [The nature & range of Grien’s work is only explicable if one grasps the revolutionary nature of the world in which he painted.  Constantinople had only recently fallen, 1453; the Moslem invaders were driving into the Balkans; the New World was discovered in 1492 & was being colonised; the Reformation had begun, 1517; & above all a vigorous & innovative capitalist system was displacing the feudal system.  Grien would have been well aware not only of the Reformation but also of capitalist innovation because he provided illustrations for books Davidson pp 20-21.      

Training: In Durer’s workshop, from around 1503 Brinkmann p19

Influences: Initially Durer, & Grunewald while Grien was in Freiburg Grove3 p102

Career: During Durer’s second Venetian trip, 1505-7, he managed the workshop; moved to Halle; & then to Strasbourg around 1508; & married a merchant’s daughter & joined the guild, 1510.  Between 1512 &1516 he worked on his [as in] masterpiece for the high altar in the cathedral in Freiburg in Breisgau, moving to the town & not returning to Strassburg until 1517.  The altarpiece is a piece of stunning composition & design featuring animated, moving figures; rich detailing; & glowing colour including yellow-gold, blue, purple red & scarlet Brinkmann pp 19-20, Grove3 p105, webimage

Oeuvre/Phases: Paintings, prints, Chiaroscuro Woodcuts on coloured paper, together with stained-glass design.  He began painting altarpieces in 1507, & in 1510 his [as in] woodcut Witches (The MET),  the first of his numerous works devoted to witches & witchcraft.  While at Freiburg he began a great series of horrific works which only conclude with his own death.  They depicting a beautiful young nude woman encountering a hideous death figure as in Death & the Maiden, 1517 (Offentliche Kunstsammlungen, Basel) .  These paintings contrast with the twin splendidly erotic [as in] Adam & Eve (Szepmuveszeti Msuzzeum, Budapest) for a couple to hang above their marital bed: surely the greatest works of this type ever painted  Grove3 pp 102-04, Brinkmann pp 20, 211

Characteristics: He was a highly versatile artist who appears to have had an almost overwhelming desire for novelty & whose work displays a fascination with witchcraft & superstition, & a preoccupation with the female sex.  In particular he had a particular obsession with all aspects of their bodies from youth to old age & death, with a distinctive focus on their nether quarters & the interest which both sexes display in these bodily parts & related erotic activities.   This obsession gave rise to an extraordinarily wide range of works in which he depicted his [as in] Defecating Woman, 1513 (Staatliche Museum, Berlin), the [as in] Nude Woman holding a Mirror (Bayeriische Statsgemaldesmmlungen, Munich) in which she is using a mirror to examine her vagina; & female pubic hair as in his Vanitas (Alte Pinakothek, Munich), which narrowly anticipates Cranach’s Venus, 1532.  In Women’s Bath with a Mirror (Staatliche Kunsthalle, Karlsruhe) a beautiful naked young woman is amusing herself brushing her pubic hair. There are also couples engaged in foreplay as in Adam & Eve (Kunstammlungen, Coburg), & an old man paying an amused prostitute as in Mercenary Love, 1527 (The Walker, Liverpool).   It should also be mentioned that his interest in sexual activity even extended to the mating behaviour of horses Grove3 p102, Brinkmann pp 44-45, 115-22, 126-29, 158-59, 183, Jacobs1979 p11

Later Work: The Reformation led to a drastic alteration in his subject matter & a shift to allegorical, classical, historical, & legend pictures from 1520.   These were  typical of early Mannerism featuring strong stylisation & sinuous line together with naturalistic detail while in his final works he employed luminous, unusual & even clashing colours.  He also used line to create decorative works Grove 3 pp103-4

Notable Innovations: The erotic nature of the Fall as in his [as in] woodcut Adam & Eve, 1511 (MET); the depiction of Judith as a murderous femme fatale in [the as in] Judith with the Head of Holofernes, 1525  (Gemanisches Nationalmuseum, Nuremberg).   Here posed in the nude she is contemplating her knife with pleasure rather than carrying out the grim task of decapitation to save Israel Grove3 p102, Brinkmann pp 217.  He also produced works which by a dramatic use of light the figures have such plasticity that the figures seem to emerge from the frame & begin speaking as in [his as in] Two Witches, 1523 (Stadel Museum, Frankfurt am Main) Brinkmann pp 12, 50-1). 

Feature: Grien’s Two Witches is humorous, & makes fun of witchcraft as belatedly recognised by the acclaimed Baldung scholar Gert von der Osten  Brinkmann p35

Technique: He produced numerous striking,  dramatic Chiaroscuro Woodcuts which were heightened in white using a quill pen on brown primed paper as in New Year’s Greeting with Three Witches, 1514 (Albertina, Vienna) Brinkmann pp 47, 53, 59, 67, 73, 169

Patrons: The Margrave Christoph I of Baden Brinkmann p43

Verdict/Status: A prodigious artist who is only a half-step behind Grunewald, Durer & Hans Holbein Grove3 p102

Repute: Grien’s importance has never been properly recognised.   For instance, he is not mentioned by Kenneth Clark in his book on the nude & the entry in The Oxford Companion to Western Art is woefully short & inadequate.

..GRIGORESCU, Nicolae, 1838-1907, Rumania:

Background: Born in Vacaresti, of peasant stock Norman1977
Training: He was apprenticed in his youth to an icon-painter, studied in Bucharest, and began by painting church murals Norman1977
Influences: Grigorescu’s mature style developed in France under the influence of Courbet, T. Rousseau, Diaz and Corot Norman1977
Career: With a state scholarship he travelled to France, where he learned a spontaneous Realism.   An exhibition of his work in Bucharest in 1873 was a success and secured his financial independence.   He made many trips to France, maintaining a studio there until 1887 Norman1977
Oeuvre: Grigorescu painted the landscape and people of Rumania, peasant and gypsy life, scenes from the Jewish communities, picturesque villages and dusty country roads Norman1977
Repute: Rumania’s most important 19^th century painter, he was recognised in his own lifetime as the founder of a new national art Norman1977

..GRIGORIEV/GRIGOR’YEV, Boris, 1886-1939, Russia:

Training: 1903-7 at the Straganov School of Art & Industry under; 1907-12 at the St Petersburg Academy under Alexander Kiselev & Nikolai Dudovskiy; & 1912-14 at the Academie de la Grande Chaumiere, Paris RARev p322, Petrova p269
Career: Exhibited at the World of Art, 1913-8.   He taught at the State Art Studios,1818, & immigrated to Paris in 1920.  He had some success as a landscape & salon portrait painter.  Between 1828 & 1930 he taught at the Academie Chilean de Bellas Artes, Santiago.   He was Dean of the New York School of Applied Arts, 1936 Petrova p269, RARev p322, Grove13 p654.
Oeuvre: Figurative paintings & graphic art RARev pp 229, 322
Feature: During 1917-22 he painted his Raseya (Russia) cycle of which the most famous is Land of the Peasants, 1917-8.   This combines Russian Neo-classicism & elements of Expressionism Petrova pp 170-1
Politics: He did not welcome the new order but observed events with interest & made trips around the country to feel the people’s mood.   These were the basis for his Rasseya cycle of drawings & paintings RARev p229
Circle: He belonged to the St Petersburg boh4mia & was close to Vasily Shukhayev, Velimir Khlebnikov, Anna Akhmatova, etc Grove113 p654
Status: He was famous in Russia from around 1900.   The Rasaya cycle brought him nationwide fame RARev p229, Petrova p171

*GRIMSHAW, John Atkinson, 1836-93, England; Victorian Modern Life:

Background: He was born in Leeds, the son of a policeman who later worked for Pickford’s, the railways, kept a shop & belonged to Leeds Philosophical & Literary Society Broomfield p3

Training: He was self-taught Grove13 p666 

Influences: Grimshaw’s friend Inchbold as seen in the Old Mill etc from 1860s; Ruskin Broomfield pp 6, 8, 23

Career: The family moved to Norwich & then back to Leeds.  He gives up his job as a railway clerk & became a full-time artist & is known to have made painting journeys to the Lake District & Altringham. He first exhibited at the  RA in 1861, became increasingly prosperous & built a house at Scarborough, 1876.  However, a financial crisis around 1880 forced its sale & during the 1880s he took a studio in Chelsea.  In the late 1860s the Grimshaw’s became Catholics  Bromfield pp 3-4, 9, Sellars p137, Grove13 p666

Oeuvre: Landscapes, townscapes, port scenes, nature studies, interiors with figures, & portraits in oils & watercolour together with nude goddesses Broomfield images & pp 15, 16, 18

Speciality: Moon light scenes of which the first known was Whitby Harbour by Moonlight 1867 (Private), & scenes in the early morning, or at dusk featuring gas lighting & sometimes striking illuminated windows as in Liverpool from Wapping, 1875 (Museum of Art, Philadelphia) & Boar Lane, Leeds by Lamplight, 1881 (Leeds Art Gallery) Broomfield p3 & numerous images in Sellars

Feature: Suburban roads, town streets & landscapes that are deserted except for a single person or couple & this, together with gloomy or spooky light, gives rise to a powerful feeling or loneliness & melancholy as in The Shadows on the Park Wall Roundhay Park, Leeds, 1872 (Leeds Art Gallery) Sellars pp 133, 142, 145; Broomfield p19 & Figs 18, 66; webimages  

Phases/Characteristics: After 1860 he made studies of dead birds, fruit & blossom, & woodland scenes as in A Dead Linnet, c1862-3 (Leeds Art Gallery), & his extraordinary Old Mill, 1869 (Leeds Art Gallery, both).   The latter is a particularly significant because along with Park Wall & other works it marks the way in which his pictures were now concerned with mood & atmosphere & no longer focused on an overriding & dominant Pre-Raphaelite concern with truth to nature.  They became more poetic, emotional, lyrical & aesthetic & the 1870s were his most successful years.  During 1875-6 he painted a splendidly colourful & accomplished series of fashionable women mostly in interiors as in Daydreams, 1877 (WikiArt).  Late in his career he produced an increasing number of London views, river paintings; townscapes & dock scenes & snow scenes.  If only to show his versatility mention should also be made of Iris, 1886, which appears to be a fairy but was intended to be a classical study (Leeds Art Gallery  Sellars pp 99-11,  Bromfield pp 3-4, 12, 15, 34, etc. Etc; Leeds Atart Gallery on web for Iris

Technique: For moonlight shining through cloud he used soft glazes over patches of dense paint.  Water reflections were painted by means of horizontal colour strokes pulled down by vertical strokes using a  bristle brush, as in Nab Scar with high lights using brush handle etc to draw fine lines or dashes into wet paint over a light ground.  From the 1880s he painted artificial light & shop window where colour was incorporated in under-painting thus giving greater vibrancy than yellow highlights over darker colour, as in the Whitby Harbour;  And in the Old Mill/he allowed the white primer to create scintillating light effects.  Due to financial pressure, he also painted over photographs  or from negatives projected onto canvas Bloomfield pp 9, 13, 24, Sellars pp 125, 137, Grove13 p666, etc.

Innovations: During the 1850s he produced some of the first Pre-Raphaelite landscapes.  He was one of the first artists to use photographs certainly in the case of Nab Scar, 1864 Bloomfield p6, Norman1977

Friends: Whistler Broomfield p16

Patronage : From the early 1860s there was a ready market for his paintings in Leeds.  During the 1870s his paintings were much in demand by the new middle-class industrialists & Thomas Agnew’s regularly exhibited his works at their London & provincial galleries Broomfield pp 3,9

Reception: Though very popular with the public he was treated with suspicion by the academic establishment, although certainly not by Ruskin whose attitudes & ideas inspired his work  Norman1977, Bloomfield p6

Verdict & Legacy: It has been argued by Robert Rosenblum, usually a perceptive art historian, that Grimshaw’s work reflects the overwhelming bleakness of the Victorian city citing his [as in] Liverpool Quay by Moonlight, 1887 (Tate Gallery).  This is questionable.  Despite the murk the bright shop windows, into one of which a passer bye has stopped to gaze, make the scene not only romantic but also a place of pleasure.  Grimshaw was the celebrant of  the Victorian city & his legacy was its depiction before the politicians, city planners & lawyers, motivated by ideological hatred of capitalism, & sometimes corrupt, swept so much of it away during the 1960s Personal knowledge

Sons: Louis & Arthur painted in a similar style Norman1977

..Abel GRIMMER, c1570-1619,  Jacob’s son, Belgium=Antwerp: Northern Realism

Background: He was born in Antwerp Grove13 p 664
Training: His father Geove13 p665
Career: He became a master in the Antwerp Guild of St Luke, 1592; Vlighe p149
Oeuvre: Mainly landscape & genre OxDicArt
Speciality: Small country scenes mostly depicting the seasons & related peasant activities.  They include almost literal copies of prints by Pieter Bruegel the Elder & Hans Bol Vlighe p149
Characteristics: He had an attractive style full of lively anecdote, splendid colour harmonies & buildings with geometrical shapes OxDicArt, Grove13 p665
Innovation: His perspectival paintings of church interiors with their golden light anticipate Pieter Saenredam Grove13 p665
Status: He was a leading follower of Bruegel OxDicArt

-Jacob GRIMMER, 1526-1590,  Abel’s father, Belgium=Antwerp:

Background: He was born in Antwerp Grove13 p664
Training: He was apprenticed to Gabriel Bauwens in Antwerp, 1539; & later joined the workshop of Matthijs Cock & Kesrstiaen Van der Queck Grove13 p664
Career: He joined the society of rhetoricians, 1546; & became a master in the Guild of St Luke, 1547 Grove13 p664
Oeuvre: Mainly landscape & genre OxDicArt
Characteristics: He had an attractive style sometimes using lively anecdote in which the landscape runs continuously from foreground to horizon with areas of uniform colour, & trees silhouetted against the sky as in Landscape with Cottages, 1561 (Harvard Art Museums) OxDicArt, Grove 13 p664, webimages
Innovation: He was one of the first Northerners to cease painting panoramic mountain landscapes & paint the Low Counties’  terrain dominated by villages & farmhouses, & populated by country folk; thus, anticipating the Frankenthal School Brigstocke, See Section 8 for the Frankenthal School
Status/Reception: He was a leading follower of Bruegel & was praised by Vassari as one of the best landscape painters of his time, though he lacked Bruegel’s ability to capture atmosphere & grandeur  OxDicArt, Grove13 p664, Brigstocke.

..GROSSBERG, born GRANDMONTAGNE, Carl, 1894-1930, Germany; Magic Realism:

Background: Born Elberfeld Wikip
Training: Architecture in Aachen & Darmstadt after1913; & at the Hochschule fur Bilden Kunst, Weimar, under Walther Klemm, 1919; & at the Bauhaus under Lyonel Feininger, 1921 Wikip
Career: He was drafted in 1915 & served at the front; returned to Elberfeld, 1918; moved to Sommerhausen after training; exhibited with  the Neue Sachlichkeit at the Stedelijk Museum, Amsterdam, 1929; began work in 1933 on Industrial Plan paintings depicting important German industries which remained uncompleted; & had a major retrospective exhibition, 1935; & was drafted in 1940 Wikip
Oeuvre: Paintings of industrial scenes & town views Hayward1979 pp 46-7, 58-9, Wikip images
Characteristics: His paintings were stylised, sharply delineated, clean, more or less static & without feeling, in clear unexciting colour .  They seem themselves to have been machine-made Hayward1979 pp 46-7, 58-9, Willett p113, Wikip images
Grouping: Neue Sachlichkeit Hayward1979 p127

*GRIS/GONZALEZ, Juan/Jose Victoriano, 1887-1927, Spain:

Background: He was born in Madrid, the son of a wealthy merchant OxDicMod
Training: 1902-4 in Madrid probably in physics etc but then trained with a local artist OxDicMod
Influences: Probably Poincare OxDicMod

Career/Phases: In 1906 he moved to Paris, with help from Picasso moved into the Bateau-Lavoi, & earned his living mainly selling numerous drawings to periodicals.  In 1910 he decided to become a serious painter & his work stood out at the Section d’Or Exhibition in 1912 & Kahnweiler gave him a contract.   During the war Kahnweiler was exiled because he was German but from 1915 Gris was given support by Leonce Rosenburg & in 1919, he had a one-man exhibition at  Rosenberg’s Galerie d’Effort Moderne.   Gris was also associated with Pierre Reverdy, a friend & neighbour in Montmartre, who ran the journal Nor-Sud.   It developed the nationalistic concept of a new Classical age & by the end of the war Gris, who was now painting pictures with traditional themes, was at the centre of the movement for what became the return to order.   From 1920 his health was poor & he spent much time in the South of France & his later loser paintings are generally considered inferior OxDicMod

Oeuvre: Paintings, papier colle, graphic artist & designed & sculpture OxDicMod, ShearerW1996, Grove13 p670.
Technique: In his early Cubist phase painted friends & objects from direct observation from different viewpoints.   He claimed to start with flat shapes which he then worked up into identifiable objects Grove13 pp 668, 670.

Characteristics: He introduced a more brilliant colouring into Cubism with different aspects of objects isolated & presented within a grid format.   His mainly still-life subjects were almost all taken from his immediate surroundings but with the image in his mind.   His work displayed the link between Cubism & Neoclassicism promoted by Rosenberg.   Instead of the Impressionists’ momentary effects of light, he stressed the need for more stable local colour OxDicMod.   He turned against his pre-war work which he regarded as too naturalistic, though [curiously] his works have been seen as more naturalistic & anecdotal, as in his images of clowns R&S p73, Grove13 p671

Aim/Beliefs: His intention was work from abstraction to representation, a procedure he described as deductive & subsequently as synthetic.   “I try to make concrete that which is abstract…Cezanne turns a bottle into a cylinder, but I make a bottle –a particular bottle- out of a cylinder”.   Cubism was a reaction against the “fugitive elements employed by the Impressionists”, 1925.   His synthetic method & purity of practice reflects the claim made between 1920 & 1920 by or about Braque, Metzinger & Lipchitz that Cubism was an art of creation that transcended naturalism & enabled the intellect & imagination to work on a new poetic level R&S p74, OxDicMod, Grove13 pp 670-1.

Verdict: He was the Pierro della Francesca of the Cubist movement Hughes1991 p34.   Gris’ approach was more intellectual than that of Picasso & Braque & his synthetic Cubism relates to the work of Malevich, Lissitzky etc with their Platonic belief in the perfectibility of form R&S p75

Status: By 1912 he was becoming recognised as the leading Cubist apart from Picasso & Braque OxDicMod 

Circle/Friends: By 1908 he knew Braque, Appollinaire, Andre Salmon & Max Jacob.  In 1912 he joined the Puteaux Group (Duchamp, Villon, Picabia, Gliezes & Metrzinger).   During the war he became friends with Jacques Lipchitz & Severini, & had contact with Matisse.   He was close to Gertrude Stein, was a friend of Oxenfant, & through the Kahnweilers came into contact with the emergent Surrealist movement in 1924 Grove13 pp 668-71, Lynton p358

Grouping: He has been classified with Neue Sacklichkeit Hayward1979 p10

..GRITSAI, Alexander, 1914-1998, Russia:

Background: Born St Petersburg Bown p242
Training: Around 1931 in Zaidenberg’s studio; & at the Institute for Painting Sculpture &  Architecture, St Petersburg,  under Naumov, Yakovlev & Brodsky 1932-39 Bown p242, Wikip
Career: He served in the army, 1940-6, & after becoming hostile to works suggested by social & political developments he turned to landscape.  During 1948-74 he taught at the Moscow State Art Institute.  In 1951 he was awarded a Stalin prize for his [as in] Stormy Day in Zhiguli, 1948-50 (Tretyakov) & another in 1952 for helping paint a brigade work Bown pp 198, 242
Beliefs: Because humans are part of nature joy & consolation are to be found through a positive interaction with it Wikip
Characteristics/Phases: Latterly unable to work directly from nature much of his final work is imbued with the poignancy of reminiscence Wikip

-GROMAIRE, Marcel, 1892-1971, France:

Background: Born in Noyelles-sur-Sambre with a French father & Belgian mother OxDicMod
Training: He had no formal training but from 1910 he frequented artists’ studios & got advice from Le Fauconnier OxDicMod
Influences: Expressionism, the naturalism of the Old Masters from the Low Countries, Cezanne & the Fauves.   And after the  War Leger OxDicMod
Career: Before the War he visited the Netherlands, Belgium, Germany & England
Oeuvre: Paintings, graphic work & design OxDicMod
Phases/Characteristics: His figures were initially bulky, simplified, rounded shapes but his style then became looser & more expressionistic.  His subjects were varied but his main interest was portraying the life of the people OxDicMod
Innovation: With Jean Lurcat he was primarily responsible for the renaissance of French tapestry design in the 1930s OxDicMod

Groux.   See De Groux

Grubicy De Dragon.   See De Dragon, Vittore Gurbicy

-GROPPER, William, 1897-1977:

Background: Born in New York.   His father was a sweatshop garment worker OxDicMod
Training: At the Ferrer School of Art, 1912-14, under Bellows & Henri; then at the National Academy of Design, 1913-14, & the New York School of Fine & Applied Art, 1915-18 OxDicMod
Career:  In 1922 he became a cartoonist at the Herald Tribune but was dismissed because of his left-wing sympathies.   He then worked freelance contributing to Vanity Fair & other fashionable journals & also The New Masses & other radical publications.   He visited Russia in 1927 & worked for Pravda.   He had begun painting in 1921 & during the late 1930s painted several murals for the Federal Art Project OxDicMod
Characteristics: His paintings exposed social injustice & attacked businessmen & politicians in a simplified & satirical manner bordering on Expressionism.   In his later years he abandoned satire & his work had a more spiritual feel OxDicMod

*GROS, Baron Antoine-Jean, 1771-1835, France:

Background: He was born in Paris. His father was a miniaturist & his mother was also a painter Grove13 p13, L&L, Wikip

Training: From the age of six he was taught by his parents & in 1785 he entered David’s studio & in 1787 the Academy school but his training ended in 1793 with his father’s bankruptcy Grove13 p689, L&L

Influences: Visits to the race-course in the Bois de Boulogne which led to a lifelong passion for drawing horses.  Rubens’ vibrancy & colour, Venetian painting, & portraits by Reynolds & Gainsborough Grove13 pp 689, 691 OxDicCon

Career: During 1793-1800 he was in Italy studying, teaching & painting L&L.   In 1796 he met Napoleon, joined his entourage, & participated in military events, though he did not go to Egypt.  Napoleon commissioned the [as in] Bonaparte on the Bridge of Arcol, 1800 (Chateau, Versailles) & he was appointed his official battle painter.  From 1804, starting with [as in] (Bonaparte Visiting the Victims of the Plague at Jaffa, 1808 (Louvre) at the Salon he successfully painted battle scenes & Imperial portraits.   However from 1809 his energy fell off with a troubled marriage & depression.   He became court portraitist after the Restoration, was made a Baron in 1824, & became a professor at the Ecole des Beaux-Art.   His lame & laborious history painting Hercules & Diomedes, 1835 (Toulouse) was sharply criticised, his marriage to a much younger wife was unhappy & he committed suicide L&L, Friedlaender1930 p60, Lindsay p116, Leymarie p55, Grove13 p692,

Oeuvre: This included Classical & non-Rubenesque works & both oils & frescoes Friedlaender1930 p60, Grove13 pp 690, 692

Characteristics: His great & skilful battle scenes have drama & panache as in The Battle of Eylau, 1808 (Louvre), his brushwork was spirited & to be seen at its best in his Bonaparte on the Bridge of Arcole, 17 November 1796 (Chateau, Versailles)   OxDicCon, Leymarie pp 50-51

Feature: His [as in] Jaffa painting was modified at Napoleon’s request so that it transcended battle-braveries & depicted him as being able to emerge unharmed with a sort of King’s evil touch; & in his Elau work the wounded Russians are prominently displayed in the front & are being attended by the French  Lindsay p117                   

Innovations: His powerful Romanticism impulse transformed Neoclassical history painting into realistic contemporary violence [& he appears to have been the first artist to celebrate & promote a modern totalitarian ruler] Lindsay p119.  

Friends: Vigee-Le-Brun, Anne-Louis Girodet & Count Niemcewick who was also a patron Grove13 pp 689-90

Verdict: His classical & non-Rubenesque works are empty & ineffective Friedlaender1930 p60.   There is an unresolved conflict between his Romantic &  realistic tendencies.   This vitalised his earlier works but destroyed him Lindsay p119

Pupils: [Richard Parkes Bonnington, Paul Huet, Antoine-Louis Barye, Paul Delaroche, & Thomas Couture Grove13 p692

Verdict: His idolisation of Napoleon established a cult from which the French nation has never been able to escape.

Collections: Versailles

**GROSZ, George, 1893-1959, Germany:

Groux.   See de Groux

Grubicy de Dragon, Vittore.   See De Dragon, Vittore Grubicy

-GRUND, Norbert, 1717-67, Czech Republic: Rococo

Background: He was born in Prague & his father, Kristian, c1686-1751, was a painter Grove13 p 717
Training: His father Grove13 p717
Influences: Watteau, Lancafret, Guardi Grove13 p717
Career: He lived in Vienna Grove13 p717
Oeuvre: Small cabinet paintings, mainly on metal or panel, depicting scenes from everyday life or pastoral idylls, but including almost all genres  L&L, Grove13 p717
Phases: From the 1740s his paintings employ heavy late Baroque colour, during the 1750s fragile Rococo shades, & he later moved to a classicist realism Grove13 p717
Characteristics/Verdict: His subjects show little imagination but his pictures have a painterly quality with light colours laid on with a broad-brush Hempel p139
Grouping: Rococo Hempel p139
Reception/Legacy: His work was popular in aristocratic & bourgeois circles & set the trend for bourgeois paintings Grove13 p717
Brothers:  Frantisek, 1721-43, & Petr, 1722-84, were painters Grove13 p717

-GRUNDIG, Hans, 1901-58, Germany: Political Art

Background: Born Dresden L&L
Training: At the Dresden School of Arts & Crafts, 1920-1 & the Dresden Academy, 1922-3  L&L, Wikip
Influences: Otto Dix Wikip
Career: In 1925 he exhibited with Dix & other left-wing artists & 1n 1926 joined the Communist Party.   He worked as a house painter until 1928 but lost his job.  He was imprisoned by the Nazis, had his work include  at the 1937 exhibition  of degenerate art in Munich, & was put in a concentration camp, 1940-44.   After the war he was professor & rector of Dresden College of Art L&L, Wikip
Oeuvre: Paintings & graphic art & except for some portraits of a political type Wiki[p, web images
Phases: During 1930-2 he attacked city & underclass life in paintings & linocuts, & produced images of the class war L&L
Characteristics: His works are of a bold & striking linear type, often in dramatic colour Web images
Grouping: Neue Sachklichkeit.  He was one of its proletarians & highly politicised artists See Neue Sachklichkeit in Section 8

***GRUNEWALD/GOTHARDT/NEITHART, Matthias/Mathis, c1470-1528, Germany; Renaissance, Early Italian

Influences: Initially by Hans Holbein the Elder.   He was familiar with perspective & other Renaissance ideas Murrays1959

Career: Between about 1508 & 1625 he was court artist to the Archbishop  & Cardinal of Mainz but was dismissed because of his sympathy for the Peasants Revolt.   He then moved to Frankfort where he made a meagre living from a variety of jobs, including selling artists’ colours L&, OxDicArt.  

Technique:  He made drawings & preparatory studies but for the paintings themselves he worked alla prima, as shown by the absence of underdrawings for the Isenheim panels & the many changes he made Grove13 p723.

Oeuvre: He only painted religious themes, particularly Crucifixions OxDicArt

Characteristics: His work has expressive intensity created through  distorted proportions, exaggerated chirascuro, rich & sombre colour with dramatic contrasts L&L.   He used Renaissance methods to heighten late Gothic imagery as against Durer’s use of Italian techniques to penetrate the serene Italian Classical tradition Murrays1959.   His work is painterly, not linear, his pictorial language is rooted in the symbolic imagery of the Middle Ages but is proto-Baroque in its dramatic movement, expressive drapery forms & gestures Grove13 p719

Status: His paintings are unparalleled in their extraordinary beauty & expressive force.   He is generally regarded as the greatest painter of the German Renaissance & certainly its greatest colourist Grove13 p719

Beliefs: His religious sympathies may be assumed from the Lutheran tracts he owned Grove13 p723

Personal: According to Sandrart he was melancholy & withdrawn & made a late unhappy marriage OxDicArt

Influenced: Grien, Ratgeb OxDicArt

Repute: He was soon more or less forgotten.   Interest in Grunewald recovered when the Expressionists saw him as a kindred spirit OxDicArt, Grove13 p719

..GRUTZNER, Eduard von, 1846-1929, Germany:

Background: He was born in Gross Karlowitz, Prussia Artnet
Training: The private painting academy of Herman Dyck in Munich & then the Academy of Fine Arts under Hermann Anshutz [???] & Piloty Artnet
Career: He had great success in Munich Artnet
Oeuvre/Characteristics: Genre, particularly the theatre, monks consuming beer in rowdy groups, naughty servant girls, jolly peasants, & Falstaff.    His paintings have detailed rendering & display humour, though he also painted ascetic looking cardinals Dunlop p240,  Artnet, Wikip
Feature: His second wife left him for a Viennese singer & his work was much admired by Hitler Dunlop  p240, Wikip

Guariento.   See di Arpo

..GUARANA, Jacobpo, 1720-1808, Italy=Venice: Rococo

Background: He was born in Venice Grove 13 p240
Training: Tiepolo Levey1959 pp 49, 51
Career: He joined the Accademia in 1756 & in 1763 painted the ceiling of the chapel in the Doge’s palace Grove 13 p 240.
Oeuvre: Frescoes & ceiling canvases Grove 13 p 240
Phases: His early works are in Tiepolo’s style but with a lighter palette, & his later works lack luminosity & are often repetitive & rhetoric Grove 13 p240
Characteristics: His work is light-hearted & he faithfully followed the great Venetian artists of the 186h century Levey1959 p51, Grove 13 p 240
Verdict: He was not particularly competent or outstandingly talented Levey1959 p51
Status: After Tiepolo left for Madrid in 1762,  Guarana was the most sought-after decorator for Venetian palaces & was commissioned by Catherine the Great Grove 13 p240
Grouping: Venetian Rococo of which he was the last exponent Grove 13 p240, Levey1959 pp51-2. 

*Francesco GUARDI, 1712-93, Antonio’s brother & Giacomo’s father, Tiepolo’s brother-in-law, Italy=Venice; Rococo and Romantic Picturesque Movement

Background: His father Domenico, 1678-1716 was a painter & so were his own brothers Nicolo/Niccolo Giovanni, 1715-85,  & Antonio/Gianantonio, 1699-1760.  The latter appears to have painted, religious works, battle & flower pieces, & genre including small scenes of Turkish life.  However, the collaboration between Antonio & Francesco makes it virtually impossible to know who painted what up to 1760, although if, as usually believed, Antonio painted the Tobias frescos with their flickering brushwork, & light & gay colours this would greatly raise his status Moschini p7, Grove 13 p740-42, L&L, Dr Richard Stemp on web, Brigstocke.  Francesco worked at a time when the Venetian Republic was in an obvious decline.  In a speech to the Senate the Doge referred to the current inertia, languor & sluggishness of the nation Levey1959 p101.   This was the emotional climate in which Francesco produced his paintings of ruins.

Influences: Canaletto for his early Venetian views. Magnasco in whose studio be probably worked, & Sebastiano Ricci’s loose & wispy brushwork L&L, Steer p206; Wittkower1973 p503

Career: Initially he helped his brother Antonio,  in the production of uneven & derivative paintings of many types, but from about 1765 he seems to have only produced view paintings.   In 1784 he was elected to the Venetian Academy but died in poverty L&L, Steer p207

Oeuvre: After 1760 he painted views of the Venetian waterfront & canals, townscapes some including festive events, celebratory events taking place in interiors, genre scenes, landscapes, paintings of the Lagoon, & ruins & delipidated buildings, including figures.  The latter, together with the genre works were caprice, as in A Caprice with Ruins on the Seashore, c1777 (NG).  Ruinous structures were his most notable work & his speciality Moschini, Beddington illustrations , webimages 

Technique: He used the camera ottica in which mirrors reflect the view in a dark box.  It steepens the perspective, & Guardi sometimes left it uncorrected.   His later works were painted with very dilute oils Levey1959 pp 71-2, L&L

Characteristics/Phases: His work was of a Rococo nature because of his love of movement, pale tones &  luminous skies Levey1959 p103.   Canaletto was in the old Italian tradition of fluid, even painting & firm compositional structure but Guardi stems from more recent masters of the loaded brush, i.e. listing backwards Marieschi, Marco Ricci, Magnasco, Maffei, Fetti & Leys.  He increasingly moved  towards a fresh & personal interpretation of the material world in which solid form is dissolved & dematerialized to an extent undreamed of by any previous artist as in his View of the Lagoon, c1790 (Museo Poldo Pezzoli, Milan).  Some of his later pictures were of only matchbox size Wittkower1973 pp 503-5, L&L.  After 1760 his views had flat & dull blue skies which were replaced by light & shade, thundery effects & his work became increasingly atmospheric, as in The Piazza San Marco during the Feast of the Ascension, c1777 (Calouse Gulbenkian Museum, Lisbon) & The Isola della Manotonetto, c1785 (Fogg Art Museum, Harvard) Levey1959 pp 98 , 113-4, Steer pp 206-8, Beddington pp 142, 147

Innovation: He was the first Venetian painter to look outside the city, paint the surrounding water & see the city like a tourist as a romantic image & a product of the imagination rather than a reality, though he never, like Turner, painted Venice as shimmering dream city.  His Venice is a blend of truth & fiction in which its degradation & decay become evident in works revealing its ruinous state as in his Capriccio with Triumphal Arch, 1775 (Accademia Carrara) & Caprices with Ruins  (NG).  His most original work is his lagoon paintings with their romantic imagery of ruined towers & drooping fishing-nets painted in blue-grey tones of great delicacy, creating a poetic mood tinged with nostalgia, as in View of the Lagoon, Museo di Castelvecchio, Verona.  Such works are half way between traditional capriccio & Whistler’s tone-poems  Levey1959 p100-105, Steer pp 207-208, Wittkower p505 .

Status: He was together with Hubert Robert probably the greatest Ruin Painter in the 18^th century.  There is no evidence in readily available sources which indicates that they influenced each other.  However it would be surprising if Francesco did not know about Robert’ s ruin paintings as the latter spent eleven years in Italy from 1754 Grove26 p448      

Forerunner/Verdict: He anticipated the Impressionists Views of the lagoons &  partly anticipated Whistler’s tone-poems Steer p207 Wittkower1973 p505.   

Patronage: His work was bought by relatively humble dealers, such as Giovan Sasso who was employed by the British Resident, John Strange, a dealer in old & new pictures.   He was virtually unknown by the great patrons Haskell pp 361, 373-4

Influence: He had very little except for his son’s crude imitation & talented artists like Migliara & Joseph Bison who merely imitated his style Moschini p48

Repute: He was not re-evaluated until Berenson said that his views were more picturesque than Canaletto’s with a greater impact, thus anticipating Impressionism, & George Simonson’s monograph, 1904 Moschini p48

Progeny: His son Giacomo, 1764-1835 painted Venetian views in gouache which lack his father’s freshness L&L

Collections: National Gallery, London, with 23 works

-Giacomo GUARDI, 1764-1835, Francesco’s son, Italy=Venice; Rococo and Romantic Picturesque Movement

Guariento di Arpo.  See di Arpo

..GUDE, Hans, 1825-1903, Norway: National Romantic Movement 

Background: Born Oslo Norman1977
Training: 1837-41 in  Oslo & then to Dusseldorf where he studied under Achenbach & Schirmer, 1846 Norman1977
Career: He worked largely in Germany but made summer sketching expeditions to the Norwegian countryside & during 1848-50 lived in Oslo.   In 1850 he returned to Dusseldorf & started teaching at the Academy in 1854.   After spending 1862 in Wales he was director of the Karlsruhe Art School, 1863-80, & then ran a teaching studio in Berlin, 1880-1903 Norman1977
Oeuvre: Dramatic Norwegian scenery & waterfalls carefully detailed & with clear contrasts of light.   His work featured genre scenes of country ceremonies painted in association with Tidemand  & his Bridal Procession at Hardanger1848, is the most famous work of Norwegian National Romanticism Norman1977, Grove3 p776, & 13 p776.
Influence: Young Scaninavian artists flocked to study with him.   His wild scenery & plein air approach revitalised Norwegian seascape & landscape painting, & his genre scenes were enormously popular Norman1977, Kent p222

**GUERCINO/BARBERI, Giovanni Francesco1591-1666, Italy=Ferrara; Baroque Movement:

Training: He was largely self-taught L&L
Influences: Ludovico Carracci & Venetian painting, Corregio  OxDicArt;  NGArt1986p457
Career: By 1618 he had gained considerable success & made a study trip to Venice.   During 1621-3 he was in Rome where he was summoned by Gregory XV but he went back to Cento, a small town near Bologna.   In1642 he went to Bologna after Reni’s death OxDicArt, L&L
Oeuvre: Frescos, altarpieces , portraits  & small works on copper L&L
Phases: His early emotionally charged work had dramatic & capricious lighting, strong colour, broad & vigorous brushwork.   However he became progressively more Classical after Rome & his late works were very like Reni’s OxDicArt
Patronage, etc: It was initially local but after returning to Cento he conducted a successful international mail-order business in large altarpieces etc L&L
Status: He was one of the most famous Italian artists of the 17^th century L&L
Innovations: He was a founder of the High Baroque with da Cortona & Lanfranco OxDicArt

– GUERIN, Baron Pierre-Narcisse, 1774-1833, confusable with Gerard & Girodet,  France; Neoclassical:

Training: Regnault Norman1977
Influences: Racine & other great French dramatists’ interpretations of classical Antiquity Brigstocke
Career: He was forced to take up art by his parents; won the first Rome prize in 1797 but had to remain in Paris.   His Return of Marcus Sextus, 1799, was a sensational success.   Then he spent two years in Italy.   Guerin became a Professor at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts in 1815, Director of the Rome Academy in 1822, & a Baron in 1829 Norman1977
Oeuvre: Scenes from classical history & mythology Norman1977
Characteristics: His compositions are David-like but sweetened.   They often have an air of theatrical pathos.   Especially in his later pictures he employed an elegant line but also a hard, shiny finishNorman1977, Brigstocke, Friedlaender1952 pp 44-5.
Grouping: Neoclassicism Norman1977, L&L, Honour1968 pp 77-8
Pupils: Gericault, Delacroix, Huet & Scheffer.   He laid emphasis emphasis on the painted sketch Norman1977

Guglielmo della Porta.   See Porta

 -GUIDO DA SIENA, active c1260-80, Italy=Siena:

Oeuvre: There is only one certain work , the Madonna & Child, on the basis of which other panels have been attributed OxDicArt
Status: With Coppo di Marcovaldo he founded the Sienese School L&L
Collections: Siena Pinacoteca

GUILLAUMET, Gustave, 1840-1888, confusable with Guillaume & Guillemet, France:

Background: He was born in Paris, the son of a prosperous dying manufacturer Norman1977, ThompsonJ p95
Training: At the Ecole des Beaux-Arts under Francois-Edouard Picot; Alexandre Abel de Pujol & Felix Barrias Grove13 p828, ThompsonJ p95
Career: After failing to win the Prix de Rome with a  historical landscape he went impulsively on a career defining trip to Algeria, 1862, to which he returned nine more times.  He exhibited at the Salon from 1861 which in 1863 exhibited his masterpiece [as in] The Sahara/Desert (Musee d’Orsay) Grove13 p828, ThompsonJ p95
Oeuvre: Oriental scenes in oils & pastel together with other paintings Norman1977, webimages
Characteristics: A combination of picturesque realism & academic composition.   Fascinated by its light, he caught the mysterious tones & vast horizons of the East & its poor under the blazing sun.  However, his work is highly diverse & includes genre of an Orientalist nature as in An Arab Encampment c1880 (Minneapolis Institute of Arts), & Weavers & Bou-Saada (Musee d’Orsay), together with landscapes that are naturalistic & non-exotic as in Mountains in North Africa with a Bedouin Camp (NG).   Over time his brushwork broadened & there was a the atmosphere softened Grove13 p828, Norman1977, ThompsonJ p95, webimages
Innovation: Unlike other Orientalist painters he did not shun scenes of rural agriculture, & poverty as in his horrific La Famine, 1869 (National Museum of Fine Arts, Algiers) ThompsonJ p95
Patronage: State institutions bought his works Grove13 p828
Influence: He paved the way for the Société des Peintres Orientalists, formed 1893 Grove13 p828

GUILLAUMIN, Armand, 1841-1927, France; True Impressionism

Background: He was born in Paris Norman1977
Training: Academie Suisse, where he met Cezanne & Pissarro Norman1977
Influences: Pissarro L&L
Career: He worked in the city of Paris administration but, after winning a lottery, turned to art exclusively in 1892.   He exhibited at the Salon des Refuses in 1863 & at the Impressionist exhibitions, except in 1876 & 1879 Norman1977, L&L
Oeuvre: Landscapes Norman1977
Phases: The strong brushwork & bright colours of his later period are Fauve-like & often dramatic & lurid Norman1977, Adler p60
Characteristics: His best paintings combine a fine sensitivity to light & skies with compositional solidity L&L
Feature: He took a night-time post so he could paint in daylight L&L
Politics: He appears to have been a Socialist Adler p60
Grouping: Impressionist Norman1977
Friends: Monet, Signac & Van Gogh Norman1977 

..GUILLEMET, Jean-Baptiste-Antoine, 1841-1918, confusable with Guillaume & Guillaume, France; Romantic Naturalism:

Background: Born Chantilly into a wealthy family of ship owners & chandlers Norman1977, Grove13 p829
Training: With Corot’s pupil Achille Oudinot & at the Academie Suisse where he met Pissarro & Cezanne Wikip, Grove13 p829
Influences: He was strongly influenced by Corot but it seems unlikely that he trained with him See Norman1977, Hours p49, Grove13 p829
Career: He abandoned law favoured by his parents for painting in Paris; made sketching trips with Charles-Francois Daubigny & his son during the early 1860s; made his debut at the Salon, 1865; engaged in experiment & travel, & lived & worked with Pissarro, Courbet & Cezanne during the 1860s; served with the Gardes Mobiles during the Siege of Paris & exhibited [as in] Low Tide & Villerville in which he achieved maturity & a settled style, 1872 (Museum of Painting & Sculpture, Grenoble); & he served on the Salon jury from 1880 where he was an invaluable ally of the Impressionists; bought a property at Moret-sur-Loing, near the junction of the Loing & the Seine, around 1883; spent the winters in Paris & the summers in Normandy; & worked in the Dordogne from about 1912 Grove13 p829, Wikip, Norman1977
Oeuvre/Characteristics/Speciality: He had a sound painterly technique & painted intimate & poetic landscapes & beach scenes especially in Normandy along the Seine, but he also painted a remarkable series of large works in Paris as in Bercy in December, 1874 (Musee d’Orsay)Grove13 p830, Norman1977.   Typical run of the mill works are smallish landscapes, townscapes, coastal & river scene executed from a low viewpoint sometimes with big skies often including farm & other buildings together with a few barn yard scenes & interiors.   His colouring is soft & gentle & his work is pleasing webimages
Innovation: It is claimed that he was one the first 19^th century artists to paint modern life & was a key figure in the transition from Realism to Impressionism Wikip
Verdict: He was a minor master Grove13 p830
Circle: His lifelong friends Corot & Manet; Zola & the Impressionists Norman1977, Grove13 p829
Pupil: Cezanne Norman1977
Repute: After his death he was soon forgotten & his work was not re-examined until the 1970s Grove13 p830

-GULBRANSSON, Olaf, 1873-1958, Germany (Norway):

Background: Born in Oslo Grove 13 p841
Training: At the School of Applied Arts, Oslo until 1892; & at the Academie Colarossi in Paris, 1900
Career: He was active in Munich from 1902;  provided the satirical journal Simplicissimus with images of bourgeois pretentiousness; was elected to the Akademie der Kunste, Berlin, 1916; was in Oslo, 1923-27;  & returned to Munich, becoming professor of drawing & painting at the Akademie der Bildenden Kunste, 1929; continued to work for Simplicissmus until 1949; & was elected to the Bayerische Akademie der Schonen Kunste, 1951.  It is claimed that he actively co-operated with the Nazis & he caricatured Churchill  L&L, Grove13 p841, Wikip
Oeuvre: Paintings, caricatures & book illustrations L&L, Grove13 p841
Characteristics: He painted fine portraits of eminent contemporaries & lyrical landscapes working in watercolour & pastel L&L, Grove13 p841

-GUNN, Sir Herbert James, 1893-1964, Scotland/England:

Background: He was born in Glasgow, the son of a successful tailor E&L p90
Training: 1909-10 at the Glasgow School of Art; 1910-11 at the Edinburgh College of Art; 1911-12 at the Academie Julian in Paris E&L p90.
Career: War service with the Scottish Rifles after which he settled in England, though maintaining strong links with Glasgow .  His group portrait Conversation Piece was so successful at the RA in 1932 that he decided to concentrate almost exclusively on portraits.   He painted the Coronation State Portrait for Elizabeth II, & E&L became an RA in 1961 Flemings 1934 p134, E&L p90
Oeuvre/Phases : Early landscapes  in France & Spain & portraits as in The Eve of the Battle of the Somme E&L p90, Flemings p134
Characteristics: His early landscapes were in a fluid, impressionist style E&L p90
Speciality: Portraits of his second wife Pauline Milner E&L p90
Feature: The idyllic Eve of the Battle of The Somme, 1916, was presumably painted prior to the battle & without ironic intent [but nevertheless the horrific nature of trench warfare was already becoming evident, & the picture belongs to a group of works in which the tranquil aspects of the Great War were made manifest] Flemings p134, See Battle & War Paintings, Great War & Inter-War, Section 3
Verdict: At times he rises well above the limitations of the academic portrait Macmillan1990 p332

-GUNTHER, Matthaus/Matheus, 1705-88; Rococo

Background:  Born Peissenberg/Tritschengreith Wikip
Training: In the studio of Cosmos Asam, 1723-8  L&L
Influences: The drawings of Johann Holzer which he purchased & used, & Tiepolo’s glamour & worldliness Hempel pp 120, 247
Career: He became a master in Augsburg, 1731, & this was his base while he painted in churches in Bavaria, Swabia, Franconia & the especially the Tyrol, often working with the plasterer Franz Feucht Mayer & the architect Johann Fischer; had an inspiring encounter with Tiepolo in Wurzburg, 1751-2, & was  Director of the Augsburg Academy of Art, 1762-84 Hempel p247, L&L, Wikip, Grove13 p853
Oeuvre: Frescos, altarpieces & other panel paintings, etchings L&L, Wikip
Characteristics: By 1742 he was using cool, silvery colours.  His frescoes are dramatic & high-spirited involving decisive gestures & actions but are frequently overcrowded & restless as in the Apotheosis of St Benedict, 1761-3 (Abbey, Rott am Inn, Bavaria).  In other paintings he creates a stage like scene as in Judith & Holofernes, 1754 (parish church, Wilten, Innsbruck).  His works lack Holzer’s sense of beauty Grove13 p853. Hempel pp 120, 247.
Status: He was one of the most popular decorative painters of the area in which he worked L&L

..GURLITT, Heinrich, 1812-97, Germany:

Background: Born in Altona Norman1977
Influences: Much influenced by Eckersburg and the Realist tendencies of the Copenhagen Academy Norman1977
Oeuvre: A landscape painter Norman1977
Innovation: He introduced a new objective naturalism to Düsseldorf Norman1977
Grouping: Some of his work has been classed as Lumanist Wilmerding p222
Influenced: Through his influence on the Achenbach brothers he helped change the course of German landscape painting Norman1977

**GUSTON, Philip, 1913-80, USA (Canada):

Background: He was born in Montreal and grew up in LA, where he was a school friend of Pollock OxDicMod

Training: Mainly self-taught except for few months at Otis Art Institute, LA OxDicMod

Influences: Mexico muralists including Rivera, Orozco and Siqueiros seen in his early work and from 1912-5. Mondrian’s Scheveningen seascapes, along with Velazquez & Goya Hughes1997 pp 583-4

Career; In 1934 he visited Mexico and until 1941, worked in New York as a muralist on a Federal art Project.  Moved to Iowa City in 1941 to teach at State University and from 1945-7 became an artist-in-residence at Washington University, St Louis.  By 1950 he settled New York after many European travels OxDicMod.  By the mid-1970s he become schizophrenic, over concerning himself with formalist artistic concerns, during Vietnam war when American was tearing itself apart Hughes 1997 p585.  In 1970 his first exhibition of new Neo-Expressionist work was shown at the Marlborough Gallery, New York. OxDicMod

Phases: In 1941 he switches from murals to easel painting OxDicMod.  Up until 1947 his fragments of real life was woven into mythlike compositions. Ashton1962 p66.  After 1947 his abstractions were dependant on intuition & revelation with dark, troubled pictures giving way to silvery linearity compositions. Ashton1962 pp 67-8  He painted luminous patches of overlapping colour, delicately brushed in certain areas with light backgrounds.  During 1960s encroaching grey shades and vague naturalistic, elements appear.  By the late 1960s he returned to figurative painting in satirical, garishly coloured, cartoon-like style, with hooded figures drinking, driving, smoking & painting. OxDicMod

Status: He belonged to Abstract Expressionism’s lyrical wing, he was then a pioneer of Neo-Expressionism OxDicMod

Beliefs: Complete Abstraction is impossible: “we are image-makers & image ridden” Everitt p38.  It is unclear why his loss of faith in known images and symbols were seen as freedom.  This loss produced a pathos at the heart of modern painting & poetry (1958) Hughes1990 p397.  He said “American abstract art is a lie, a sham, a cover up for a poverty of spirit…a mask to mask the fear of revealing oneself” (c1970) OxDicMod

Verdict: An outstanding American painter of 1970s for intensity & influence Hughes1997 p582

Feature: He married Helen Frankenthaler Everitt p40

Legacy: His works punctured formalist art, which opened the way for kitsch Expressionism, thus bad Painting etc Hughes1990 p398

-GUTHRIE, Sir James, 1859-1930, Scotland; Rural Naturalism Movement

Background: He was born at Greenock, the son of a clergyman Grove13 p868

Training: After law at Glasgow University, he worked under the under-painter James Drummond, 1877, in John Pettie’s London studio, 1878 Grove13 p868.   However, he was essentially self-taught McConkey1989 p156

Influences:  Millett & the Barbizon School.   In 1882 he saw Bastien-Lepage’s works, adopted his style.   He was influenced by the portraiture of Velazquez & Whistler Grove13 p868

Career: During 1878-81 he spent the summers painting landscapes alongside Craw Hall & Walton.    The Highland Funeral, 1882, was his first important work, & he began his first naturalist painting at Crowlands in Lincolnshire (To Pastures New) McCaskey p156, Grove13 p868.   In 1883 he Walton & Caw went to Cockburn path (called Co’path), where he remained throughout the winter.   During the summer of 1884 he was joined by Walton, Crawhall, Melville, etc. Billcliffe pp 106-7.   During 1885 Guthrie still at Cockburn path became very depressed at the difficulties he was having, put his foot through the picture & nearly gave up painting Billcliffe pp 122, 124.   In 1898 he became the first Glasgow Boy to join the Royal Scottish Academy, & between 1902 & 1919 was President Grove13 p868.   From 1919 he mostly worked on a huge group portrait Statesmen of World War I OxDicMod.  He belonged to the New English Art Club Norman1977

Oeuvre:  Landscapes & portraits Norman1977

Phases: From 1882 he painted naturalist paintings but with more colour & sunlight than those of Bastian-Lepage Grove13 p868.   Around 1885 his paintings were increasingly decorative, patterned & symbolist Billcliffe pp 122-3.   He turned to portrait painting apart from 1888-90 when he produced pastel scenes at Helensburgh of middle-class life & a few works, mostly small, in early 1890s McConkey1989 pp 96, 98, Grove13 p868

Status: During 1882-6 he painted the most important Glasgow School naturalist paintings & he then became the leading Scottish portraitist of his generation Grove13 p868

Grouping: The Glasgow Boys OxDicMod

*GUTTUSO, Renato, 1912-87, Italy:

Background: He was born near Palermo OxDicMod

Training: He was largely self-taught OxDicMod

Influences: Picasso OxDicMod

Career: in 1931 he abandoned legal studies for painting & later settled in Rome.   Guttuso was in 1938 a founder member anti-Fascist Corrente & in 1941 he secretly joined the Italian Communist Party.   His Crucifixion of 1941 was fiercely criticised as anti-Fascist & by the Church for its female nudity & modernity.   In 1944 he became a Resistance fighter.   In 1946 he joined the Fronte Nuovo Delle Arti & in 1976 became a Senator OxDicMod, L&L

Phases/Oeuvre: His post-War works were often inspired by the struggles of the Sicilian peasantry but he also painted simple & direct still-lifes OxDicMod

Characteristics:  Although his art often art expressed hatred of injustice & the abuse of power, he never subordinated quality to propaganda.   Many of his paintings were large with allegorical overtones, typically painted in a vigorous Expressionist style & a more or less realistic manner OxDicMod, L&L

Personal: He was a man of forceful personality OxDicMod

Verdict: According to Berenson he was the last painter in the great Italian tradition OxDicMod

Status/Grouping: Guttuso was Italy’s leading exponent of Social Realism in the 20^th century OxDicMod

-GUYS, Constantin, 1805-92, France:

Training: None OxDicArt
Career: He began drawing probably before 1847, travelled widely & led a vagabond life.   He fought in the Greek war of independence & reported on the Crimean war for The Illustrated London News for which he had been working since 1848.   He died in poverty OxDicArt, L&L
Oeuvre: Drawings that were reinforced by thin washes of tone colour OxDicArt
Speciality: Contemporary Parisian society from court elegance to the demimonde OxDicArt
Characteristics: He had a light & elegant touch with a degree of realism L&L
Feature: His talent was recognised by Manet, Daumier & Baudelaire, who immortalised him in the Painter of Modern Life, 1863 OxDicArt

H

Haarlem.   See Mandyn

Haarlem.  See Van Haarlem

..HABERMANN, Hugo Freiherr von, 1849-1929, Germany:

Background: He was born at Dillingen, the son of a Baron Norman 1977, Wikip.
Training: He began by studying law without enthusiasm, in 1871 he entered the Munich Academy where from 1873 he studied with Karl Pilot & then opened his own studio, 1879Wikip, Norman1977
Influences: Von Uhde, & El Greco whom he discovered around 1905 Norman1977, Wikip
Career: In 1858 the family moved to Munich where he had his first art lessons.  He served as an officer in the Franco-Prussian was but managed to produce paintings, & decided to become a painter in 1892 he became vice-president of the Munich Secession & its president, 1904.   He was professor at the Munich Academy from 1905 to 1924.  In 1922 he married his model & companion Wikip, Norman1977
Oeuvre: Subject paintings as in Consultation, 1886 [Neue National Galerie, Berlin) erotic nudes & striking studies of elegant young women in profile leaning forward or confined to a thrusting face as in Portrait of a Lady 1908 (Munich), Norman1977
Characteristics: His work was of a realist nature but tended towards the decadent, melancholy or slightly perverse Norman1977
Phases: Initially the rich palette of the Pilot school but in the late 1880s he turned to dark tones with touches of contrasting light Norman1977
Circle: The realist painters that gathered around Leibl Norman1977 

-HACKAERT, Jan, c1629-85, Netherlands:

-(Jacob) Philipp HACKERT, 1737-1807 (Confusable with Hackaert),  Johann Gottlieb’s brother, Germany:

Background: He was born at Prezlau, the son of the Berlin portrait & animal painter Philipp Hackert -1768.   Phillip had four other sons Carl Ludwig, 1740-96, Johann Gotlieb (See below), Wilhelm, 1748-80, & Georg, who was a distinguished engraver Grove14 p16

Training: His father & then from 1755 at the  Berlin Royal Academy under Blaise Le Sueur Grove14 p16

Influences: Claude & Dutch landscapes Grove14 p16

Career: During 1762 he embarked on a study tour in northern Germany & painted for Adolph von Olthoff, the Swedish councillor in Pomerania.  In 1764 he accompanied Olthoff to Sweden & worked for the royal family.   After visiting Hamburg he went to Paris where his small landscape gouaches won him renown.    In 1768 he went to Italy & via Livorno, Pisa & Florence arrived at Rome where he stayed until 1782 or 1786 [authorities differ] but with sketching trips to Sicily & Switzerland.   In 1777 he had made a tour of Sicily with Richard Payne Knight & Charles Gore.    He became court painter to Ferdinand IV of Naples & settled there.   In 1799 revolution forced him to leave & he settled in Careggio near Florence Grove 14 pp 16-8, L&L, OxDicArt

Oeuvre: He was a prolific painter of landscapes & portraits, together with etchings  L&L, OxDicArt, Grove14 p17

Speciality: Idealised views of famous sights, which were eagerly sought by foreign visitors L&L

Characteristics/Phases: His early works are in a rather rigid late Baroque style & ten years of collaboration with Johann Gottlieb, who died in 1773,  reduced his landscapes to a mere formula.   His best works have a sober objectivity & a feeling for spaciousness & clarity with their sharp drawing, though this is obscured by schematic wings, little pieces of many-coloured pieces of ground, neatly trimmed trees & pretty little accessory figures.   They are idealised Grove14 p16, Novotny p73-4

Verdict: He was a minor master along with others who seem to cramp the immensity of nature & whose work represented the outmoded style of the preceding generation Novotny pp 72-3

Circle: Mengs & Winckelmann in Rome, & in Naples Goethe who became his close friend & later wrote his biography Grove14 p17, OxDicArt

Grouping: He has been included in the Classical Revival Novotny pp 73-4

Reception: His work was attacked by the adherents of naturalism etc Novotny pp 73-4

Collections: Attingham Park, Shropshire

Johann Gottlieb HACKERT,1744-73, (Jacob) Philip’s brother, Germany:

Background: Born at Prenzlau Grove14 p16
Training At the Berlin Akademie Grove14 p16
Career: He worked with his brother Philipp in Paris & Rome from 1766, & went to England in 1770, exhibited at the RA & died at Bath Grove14 p16
Oeuvre: Landscape & animal studies Grove14 p16
Feature: He produced gouaches for Lady Hamilton in Nples in 1770 Grove14 p16

Haen.  See de Haen

Hagenau.   See Hagnower

..Ellen, HALE, 1855-1940, Philip’s sister, USA; American Impressionism:

Background: Born Worcester, Massachusetts.  Her father was a prominent Boston clergyman & she was related to Harriet Beecher Stowe NGArtinParis p242, Gerdts1980 p97, Wikip
Training: In Boston under William Rimmer, William Morris Hunt & Helen Knowlton; also, classes by Tomas Eakins at the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts, 1878 & 9; at the Academie Colarossi  under Jean-Jacques Henner; for three years at the Academie Julian under Tony Robert-Fleury, Lefebre, Boulanger & Bouguereau  NGArtinParis p242, Wikip
Influences: Courbet & Manet NGArtin Paris p24
Career: In 1881 she travelled through Europe with Knowlton.   After returning to America in 1883 where she lived with Gabrielle de Vaux Clements, a fellow artist & friend from Julian’s .  It was a lifelong relationship of type unknown.   Hale supported herself teaching art, portraiture  & decorating churches.   She lived for two years at Santa Barbara, California, for two years in the 1890s but mainly in Boston wintering in Charleston from 1918 to 1940  NGArtin Paris p242,Wikip.
Oeuvre: Oils, watercolours & etchings, especially elegant women in interiors but also landscapes NGArtin Paris p242, Wikip.
Characteristics/Phases: She developed a bold style while abroad with  asymmetrical composition, radical cropping & dark strong colours.   Her work became lighter & more impressionistic NGArtin Paris p242

..Philip, HALE, USA, 1865-1931, Ellen’s brother, USA:

Background: His father was a prominent Boston clergyman & he was related to Harriet Beecher Stowe Gerdts1980 p97, Wikip

Training: At the Ecole des Beaux-Arts & the Academie Julian, & at the Art Students League Gerdts1980 p97, Wikip.

Influences: Monet Wikip

Oeuvre: Interiors with figures & outdoor scenes Gerdts1980 p97.

Career: From 1887 he was in Paris for five years & painted at Giverny during the summers.   He taught at the Museum School Boston, the Met, & the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts.   He married his cousin who was also an artist Wikip.

Characteristics: In his interiors the forms are rather academically rendered  & the paintings are geometrically structured.   However, in his outdoor scenes of figures in gardens, verandas & fields there is often a total dissolution of the of figure & background in the pure sunlight & with broken brushwork.   Bright greens & yellows are often juxtaposed.   However, his work is more varied than that of the other Boston Impressionists & some of his [outdoor] work is harder & more precise Gerdts1980 p97.   [The picture which is said to illustrate total dissolution –In the Garden-would not appear to bear out the statement, though it is certainly Impressionistic Gerdts1980 p97, & 1984 p174.]

Grouping: He was an American Impressionists Gerdts1984 p169

Repute: He is not itemised in the Yale Dictionary.

..HALL, Fred, 1860-1946, England; Rural Naturalism Movement

Background: He was born  Stillington in Yorkshire where his father was a doctor F&G p153

Training: At the Lincoln School of Art, 1879-81, & then under Verlat in Antwerp F&G p153.

Career: From around 1885 to 1897 he was largely resident in Newlyn but, then moved to Liverpool (briefly), Dorking, West Kensington & finally in 1911 to the Newbury area.   During 1887 he first exhibited at the RA F&G pp153-5.   He won a gold medal at the Paris Salon in 1912 Wikip

Oeuvre: Landscape paintings, rustic genre, portraits & caricatures, mostly during the 1890s F&G pp 153-5

Technique: He [at least initially] painted en plein air & used square brushwork F&G p153

Phases/Characteristics: His early work in Newlyn appears to have featured those in humble circumstances].    In 1887 he began the first of his sometimes humorous scenes set in Newlyn interiors.   During the 1890s he painted his mature landscapes which feature a mellow mood & subtle, evanescent tints of English Impressionism F&G pp124-5

Groupings: The Newlyn School & English Impressionism WoodDic, F&G pp 154-5

*HALLEY, Peter, 1953, USA:

Background: He was born in New York City.  His mother was a registered nurse of Polish ancestry & his father an attorney & politician of German-Austrian Jewish descent Wikip

Training: Art history at Yale until 1976, & the University of New Orleans, 1976-8 OxDicMod, L&L,Wikip

Influences: French Post-Structuralist writers, including Michel Foucaul, Roland Barthes, Paul Virilio & Jean Baudrillard Wikip

Career: In 1980 he returned to New York & lived in a loft in the East Village.  After teaching in several graduate programmes, he directed graduate studies in painting & printmaking at Yale University School of Art, 2002-11.   From 1996 to 2005 he published Index Magazine which featured in-depth interviews with those involved in creative activity.  From the 1980s to the early 20os he produced numerous essays exploring artists’ response changing social, cultural & economic & cultural conditions Wikip

Oeuvre/Characteristics: Abstract paintings wholly or predominantly geometrical in which rectangular areas or stripes are apparently painted over or sometimes alongside other areas.   Such areas & stripes are often superimposed in a multiple manner.    His colour combinations have been viewed as disharmonious & are certainly striking due to his use of fluorescent Day-Glo paint.  He also began using Roll-a-Tex, a textural additive which provides a harsh effect L&L, Wikip

Aim: “The modernism I grew up with was that it was spiritual, it was about a kind of purity & Emersonian transcendentalism …I decide that for me modernism was really about scepticism, doubt & questioning.   Things that we now say are part of postmodern sensibility” Wikip

Circle: Those associated with artist-run East Village galleries: Jeff Koons, Haim Steinbach, Sherrie Levine, Ashley Bickerton & Richard Prince who used irony & pastiche to subvert & comment Wikip

Grouping: He is a leading figure in Neo-Geometric Conceptualism/Neo-Geo  of the 1980s Wikip, OxDicMod,

..HALLIDAY, Edward, 1902-84, England,

Background: Born Garston, Liverpool E&L p 91
Training: 1920-23 at the Liverpool School of Art; at the Royal College of Art, 1923-5; & at the British School in Rome, 1926-9 E&L p91
Career: During the late 1920s he produced large decorative paintings for various projects in Liverpool & in the late 1930s undertook a major decorative scheme for a sports centre in Dolphin Square, Pimlico.   He worked in propaganda departments during the war.   Afterwards he settled in London & received commissions to paint royalty, Churchill, Mountbatten etc.  He exhibited regularly at the RA from 1929 to 1966 & in 1956 became President of the RBA E&L p91
Oeuvre: Mural painting & portraiture E&L p91
Patrons:  Sir Benjamin Sands Johnson of Johnson Brothers, the cleaners E&L p91

..HALONEN, Pekka, 1865-1933, Finland:

Background: He was from a peasant family Kent p222
Training: Konstforeningen’s Drawing School & study under Gauguin Kent p222
Influences: The Barbizon painters, Puvis de Chavannes & Symbolism Kent pp 193, 222
Career: He went to Paris in 1890 Kent pp 193, 222
Oeuvre/Phases/Characteristics: Initially peasant life featuring haymakers, washerwomen & hunters & then landscape depicting the beauties of Finish lakes & forests in autumn, & in winter which he painted en plein air.   His works are serene Kent p222, Ateneum pp 96-100

-Dirck HALS, 1591-1656, Frans’ brother, Netherlands=Haarlem:

Training: His brother Haak p234
Influences: Willem Buytewech Haak p234
Oeuvre: He painted charming, small merry company pictures inside or in parklike surroundings as in Merry Company in a Garden 1621 (Szépmûvészeti Múzeum, Budapest) OxDicArt, Haak pp 234-5
Phases: After around 1627 his work was often weaker & less spirited Haak p235
Characteristics: His work frequently include a hidden warning e.g
monkey eating a piece of fruit symbolising naughtiness & shamelessness as in The Garden Party 1627 ((Rijimuseum) Haak p235

**HALS, Frans, c1583-1666, Dirk’s brother, Netherlands=Haarlem:

Background: He was born in Antwerp, the son of a clothworker & weaver OxDicArt,  Baard         p163.  

Training: Van Mander, around 1600-3 Baard p163

Career: By 1591 the family lived in Haarlem, in 1610 he joined its guild of  St. Luke.   In 1615, his wife died & in 1616 he made a trip to Antwerp trip leaving debts unpaid.   He remarried in 1617.   In 1654 he was sued by a baker for debt & from 1662 he received financial support from the city  Baard pp 163-4

Speciality: He painted nine life-sized group portraits between 1161-6 & about 1664 which was more than any contemporary artist.  During the 1640s & 50s he painted notable husband & wife companion pictures L&L.  Many of the figures in his portraits are smiling Baard Fig 58, 60, 67, Pl 5, 8, 10-13, 21, 26, 32, 40, 42, 45  

Phases: In the 1620s he used bright colours but during the 1630s they were more monochromatic with a subtle use of predominantly black hues.   His early pictures were boisterous but after 1650, they became austere & even had a tragic, dignity L&L

Characteristics: Bravura paint handling & vigourous characterisation  L&L.   He was able to capture the fleeting moment & expression.   As in
Baffoon with a Lute 1625 (Louvre, Paris), Laughing Cavalier 1624 (Wallace Collection) and The Banquet of the Officers of the St George Militia Company 1616 (Netherlands)  Hence his work has a compelling vivacity OxDicArt

Innovation: He began the transformation of the group portrait from a stilted assemblage to a sweeping & unified Baroque composition L&L

Personal: The legend of his being a drunkard & wife beater was a case of mistaken identity L&L.   According to Houbraken he was a heavy drinker.   His second wife was more than once in trouble for brawling OxDicArt

Status: Baroque OxDicArt .  Contemporary art theorists distinguished between brushwork that was neat & smooth, & broad & sketchy.   The latter which was termed the rough manner was used by Hals & his circle in Haarlem as well as by Rubens and van Dyck in Flanders Franits p 41.

Pupils: Judith Leyster; Jan Molenmaer; van Ostade; Adrian Brouwer; Wouverman OxDicArt

Repute: This soon passed & few critics except Reynolds admired him prior to 1850 OxDicArt;   He was passionately admired by Manet & Sargent & other great 19^th century portrait painters but there was then a critical disrepute because of what was seen as shallow vulgarity Clark1978 p63

Collections: Hals Museum, Haarlem

Hamen y Leon, Juan van der.   See Van Der Hamen y (Gomez de) Leon,  Juan

.. Gawen HAMILTON, 1698-1737, confusable with Gavin Hamilton,  Scotland

Background: Born near Hamilton, Scotland Grove14 p110
Training: Wilson a bird painter Grove14 p110
Career: From about 1730 he lived in London becoming one of Hogarth’s chief rivals as a painter of conversation pieces.   He belonged to a group of artists who met at the King’s Arms in New Bond Street Grove14 p110
Oeuvre: Conversation pieces & small full-length portraits Waterhouse1953 p192
Characteristics: His groups often contain numerous figures doing little or nothing, posed in an unnatural manner, although he was certainly capable of more lively work webimages
Circle: Michael Dahl, John Wooton Willaim Kent, James Gibbs, George Vertue, John Rysbrack Handel Grove14 p110, Wikip

*Gavin HAMILTON, 1723-98, Scotland; Neo-Classicism:

Background: He came from a landed family Solkin2015 p144
Training: After attending  Glasgow University, he studied portrait painting under Agostino Masucci in Rome, 1744 Brigstocke, Solkin2015 p144
Influences: Poussin OxDicArt
Career: He visited the excavations at Herculaneum & Pompeii, 1748; returned to Britain, 1751; tried to earn a living painting portraits in London; had limited success; returned to Rome for good, 1756; & undertook excavations at Hadrian’s Villa in Tivoli, 1769-71; & then at other sites near Rome, 1771-5.  He sold  many of the works he discovered & thereby exploited the commercial opportunities that the Grand tour was opening up Wikip, Solkin 2015 p144, BurkeJ p241.
Oeuvre: Mostly classical Greek & Roman subjects together with some portraits & religious works   Brigstocke, Wikip
Characteristics: Most of his paintings are very large with inflated figures, which distinguishes his style from Poussin’s Classicism.   His figures are stately, animated & gesturing, & sometimes nude or bare breasted.  He used rich clear colour as in The Discovery of Palmyra by Wood & Dawkins, 1758 (National Galleries of Scotland).   This was the great manifesto painting of British neo-classicism in which the figures are noble, large, simplified & clearly delineated in a frieze-like composition in which the discoverers are clothed in togas in a work painted in pristine colour webimages, BurkeJ p243
Innovations: In his [as in] Oath of Brutus, 1763-4 (Yale Centre for British Art, Newhaven) he transforms the familiar scene of Lucretia’s private tragedy into an active political determination to avenge the Tarquin’s’ corrupt deeds.  This was an early example of political oath taking that was to climax in David’s Oath of the Horatio  Rosenblum1967 pp68-9
Circle: Mengs, Winckelmann & Piranesi L&L, Wikip
Grouping: Neoclassicism  Rosenblum1967 p65
Feature: His paintings were popularised through prints Honour1968 p88
Influenced: Canova & David OxDicArt
Status: He became an important taste-maker throughout Europe with British aristocratic  patrons, & collectors, such as Charles Townley, whom he advised.  Along with [Consul Smith], Thomas Jenkins & James Byres he was the contact man for those interested in making artistic purchases in Italy Wikip, Solkin2015 p144, Strong2000 p198

*Richard HAMILTON, 1922-2011, England; Borrower:

Background: Born in London at Pimlico OxDicMod, Wikip

Training: Briefly by Mark Gertler at Westminster Technical College, 1936; evening classes in painting at St Martin’s School of Art, & then at the Royal Academy Schools, 1938-40  & 1946, & at the Slade, 1948-51 Grove14  p111, OxDicMod

Influences: James Joyce & Marcel Duchamp; & the interpretation of signs & symbols -semiotics- as explored by Roland Bathes, Umberto Eco, Jean Baudrillo, etc, in which everyday fashions, lifestyles & commodities were seen as critiques of consumerism.  He was also inspired by film stills  Grove14 p111, Wikip

Career: After leaving school at 14 he was an apprentice in electrical components firm, etc; was expelled from the RA Schools in 1946 for not profiting from instruction.  He joined the Independent Group, 1952; helped organise it’s This is Tomorrow show at the Whitechapel Art Gallery, 1956, exhibiting his [as is] seminal work Just What |Is it that Makes Today’s Homes So Different, So Appealing.   From 1952 he taught at the Central School of Art & Design & at the future Newcastle University until 1966.  In 1963 he first visited the USA, Grove14 pp 112-3, Wikip, OxDicMod

Oeuvre: Paintings, collage, engravings, mixed media including plastic & plywood, & over-painted photographs Wikip, OxDicMod, Osterwold p214, Grove14 p112, Wikip

Aim: To depict consumerist everyday culture which he saw as “Popular, Transient, Expendable, Low Cost, Mass Produced, Young, Witty, Sexy, Gimmicky, Glamorous, & Big Business” Grove14 p112

Politics: He was a fervent supporter of nuclear disarmament & opponent of Hugh Gaitskell whom he portrayed, just after his death, in Hugh Gaitskell as a Famous Monster of Filmland,1964.  In The Citizen he pictured a Republican prisoner in Northern Ireland as Jesus, who has smeared excrement on the walls OxDicMod, Grove14 p112, Wikip

Characteristics/Verdict: His work ranged widely from conventional paintings, such as portraits, to objects in collage.   However, his speciality was highly stylised interiors featuring modern appliances & cheapish mass-produced furnishings.   In such paintings the colouring  is undramatic featuring large areas of smooth pale grey & off-white with minimal modulation .  There is a notable absence of distinct shadows or an obvious light source as in the representative Interior II, 1964 (Tate Gallery).  There is a ambiguity about this & other works have been described as displaying richly ambiguous double meanings [but can be viewed as presenting a frustrating, insoluble puzzle] in which it unclear whether he is challenging or reinforcing social & gender roles & stereotypes Art UK images, Grove14 p113, Osterwold pp 212-3

Innovations: He was a leading pioneer of Pop Art & produced what has been regarded as the first such work OxDicMod

Circle: Roland Penrose Wikip

Influenced: Peter Blake & David Hockney Brigstocke

Reception: It was rapturous & he participated in numerous exhibitions together with one-man shows 1955 Wikip

..HAMMERSHOI, Vilhelm, 1864-1916, Denmark=Copenhagen, Symbolism:

Background: Born Copenhagen, into an upper middle-class family, the son of a merchant & a wealthy mother Wikip, Norman1977, KSF p15

Training: At the Copenhagen Academy under Frederik Vermehren, 1879-84; & under Frederik Rohde, Vilhelm Kyhn, & Peder Kroyer Grove14p119,  Norman1977

Influences: Greek sculpture; Luca Signorelli; Dutch Old Masters, particularly Vermeer & Rembrandt,  & Whistler.   However, it is the way in which Hammershoi’s interior scenes anticipated  those of Van Hoogstraten that is so striking.  They commonly share the same eerie & disturbing lack of any human presence See Van Hoogstraeten for references & KSF images

Career: After the Charlottenburg Salon rejected his Portrait of a Girl Sewing, 1887, he was a founder member of an Independent Exhibition society, 1891, & married Ida Ilsted & honeymooned in Paris, 1891-2, & visited London  Norman1977, KSF p162, Grove14 p119

Oeuvre: Interiors, buildings, landscapes & portraits  Norman 1977, KSF images

Characteristics/Verdict: His works are painted in a clear cut naturalistic manner but without a high degree of finish using brushwork which produces a muted effect so as to convey the play of variable light because of the presence of windows.   Apart from early academic works he employed a muted palette of greys & desaturated yellows, greens & other dark hues.   His interior scenes are often deserted but when a person is present it is usually a woman or women with their backs turned KSF pp 43, 55,56, 58, 61, 73, 76-7, 83-5, 89, 94-5, 97, 101, 105, 134, OxDicMod.   In his landscape & town scenes there is no human or animal presence,  or any sign of human activity KSF pp 112-123, 126, 129,136.   He also engaged in some portraiture focusing on the sitters’ expression & stance, omitting the inessential &, where more than one person is present, nobody is shown speaking Grove14 pp118-19; KSF pp 75, 77.  His works are of a silent, spellbound, unsettling nature; & although they frequently depict the home they are generally, deserted, unhomely, uncanny, unheimlich ; & without exception grand & stately KSF p 6 & images, Norman1977

[As in] Examples: (i)  Woman with back turned, painted in muted colour, & situated in a stately room Interior Strandgade 1908 (Niedersachchisches Landesmuseum, Hanover); (ii) Empty room with variable light due to a window Sunbeams of Sunshine, 1900 (Ordrupgaard, Copenhagen); (iii) the unhomely & uncanny Sunshine in the Drawing Room III, 1903 (Nationalmuseum, Stockholm); (iv) the absence of interaction Five Portraits, begun 1901 (Tjielska Galleri, Stockholm); (v) what no people ! Street in London (Ny Carlsberg Glyptottek, Copenhagen)

(Reception: Initially his work was controversial because of its limited colour & sketchy handling OxDicMod

Feature: His paintings fitted his personality.  He spoke quietly, was shy, reserved, taciturn & reclusive.  Friends were convinced that he suffered from neurasthenia KSF p13

Friends: His brother-in-law Peter Ilsted Wikip

Patronage: From 1888 Alfred Bramsen, a Copenhagen dentist, was the foremost collector of his work but it sold better abroad KSF pp 15, 162 

Repute: After his death his work was largely forgotten until rediscovered in the 1980s OxDicMod

Grouping: His work is linked to that of the Symbolists OxDicMod, Kent p10

Anticipation: Magic Realism

Brother: Svend, 1873-1948, was a painter & potter who adopted his brother’s style for a series of landscapes & architectural works in a limited range of colour Grove14 p119

..HANSEN, Carl/Constantin  1804-80, Denmark:

Background: Born in Rome, the son of a portrait painter Norman1977
Training: Hansen studied architecture, and painting at the Copenhagen Academy Norman1977
Influence: A pupil of Eckersberg in Copenhagen Norman1977
Oeuvre: Landscape, genre and portraits, but he achieved more fame in his lifetime with paintings of classical history and allegory Norman1977
Phases: Hansen’s later years were taken up with portraits and frescoes Norman1977
Characteristics: Paint handling in his small sketches looser than Eckersberg’s with the impasto of of highlights visible NG1984 p47.   His paintings of landscape, genre and portraits are unpretentious Norman1977

..Peter HANSEN, 1868-1928, Denmark:

Background: Born in Faborg Grove14 p155
Training: At the Kunsternes Studiesskole, Copenhagen, 1884-90.  He was a pupil of Kristian in Copenhagen & Italy Zartmann Grove14 p155, Kent p198
Career: He usually spent the summers at Faborg on the island of Fyn painting youths bathing, workmen, & landscapes with fields being sown or harvested.  The winters he spent in Copenhagen where he painted city children & hooligans, etc. He made many painting trips to Italy, especially Naples & Pompeii Grove14 p155
Oeuvre: Mainly genre in the countryside or provincial Danish & Italian towns Grove14 p155
Characteristics: His work was rich in colour, texture & movement as in The Ploughman Turning, 1900-2 (Faborg Museum) which is a whirlpool of colour.   In Italy he depicted the peasants with sympathy & understanding but without sentimentality Grove14 p155, Kent pp 198, 223.
Grouping: The Fynboerne or Funen Residents along with Paul Christiansen & Fritz Syberg Kent p198

..George HARDY, 1822-1909, Fred’s brother, England:

Background: His father was a musician WoodDic
Career: He exhibited at the RA, 1846-92 WoodDic
Oeuvre: Figure subjects WoodDic
Speciality: Domestic scenes with children WoodDic
Grouping: The Cranbrook Colony TurnerDtoI p69

..Frederick Daniel HARDY, 1827-1911, George’s brother, England:

Background: His father was a musician WoodDic
Training: Thomas Webster to whom he was related WoodDic, Maas p234
Career: He lived at Cranbrook from 1854 to 1875 WoodDic
Oeuvre: Village, cottage & drawing room scenes, portraits Wood1999 p 312, WoodDic
Speciality: Comical children usually in detailed interiors WoodDic
Characteristics: His paintings have an unpretentious informality Reynolds1987 p36
Verdict: Some of his early cottage interiors are as beautiful & well observed as any Dutch 17^th century painting Wood1999 p313.
Grouping: The Cranbrook Colony WoodDic

*HARING, Keith, 1958-1990, USA:

Background: Born Reading, Pennsylvania Wikip, Grove 14 p177
Training: The Art Centre, Pittsburgh &  the School of Visual Arts, New York, 1978-9 Grove14 p177, L&L
Influences: Walt Disney & Andy Warhol but also Islamic & Japanese art L&L, Grove14 p177
Career: In 1980 he began drawing with a marker pen on the wall of the New York subway.  In 1986 he opened the Pop Shop which sold his products.  He died of AIDS L&L, OxDicMod
Oeuvre: Murals, prints & posters & by 1985 large steel sculptures webimages, L&L
Characteristics: His work often features figures of a linear, outline, cartoon type in  flat bright, colour.  They are full of humour but sometime polemical in a good cause.  He also produced decorative pattern works in colour or black & white L&L, webimages
Friend: Michael Basquiat, but he was more successful OxDicMod
Feature: His work bridged the gap between high art & the mass market OxDicMod
Patrons: By 1985 he was showing with New York’s most powerful dealer Leo Castelli OxDicMod

-HARNETT, William Michael, 1848-92, USA (Ireland):

Background: Born Clonakilty, Ireland L&L
Training: Drawing at night at the Pennsylvania Academy, at the Cooper Union in New York, at & the National Academy of Design Norman1977, Grove14 p187
Influences: Initially Raphaelle Peale Grove14 p187
Career: In 1849 he left Ireland for Philadelphia with his parents & worked there & from 1869 in New York as a silver engraver.  He turned to oil painting in the Philadelphia still-life tradition, 1875, & spent 1880-86 in Europe, mostly in Munich & Paris.   In 1886 he settled in New York Norman1977, Grove14 p187
Oeuvre/Characteristics/Phases: Until about 1880 his still-lifes were everyday objects depicted with brilliant trompe l’oeil realism on a table top or flat objects attached to a board by criss-crossed tapes.  He then painted more precious lamps, tankards & leather-bound books piled in a pyramid as in Music & Literature, 1878 Albright Knox Art Gallery, Buffalo.  His works are gently melancholic Norman1977, Grove14 p187, webimages
Status: He was the most influential American still-life painter in the last quarter of the 19^th century but, though popular, he never earned the regard of connoisseurs Grove14 p187, Norman1977

-HARPINGES, Henri, 1819-1916, France; Barbizon School;

Background: Born Valenciennes into a prosperous bourgeois family Grove14 p188
Training: The landscape painter & engraver Jean Achard in 1846 Norman1977, Bouret p252
Influences: The Barbizon painters & his friend Corot.  When he first visited Italy the austere forms of the Campagna under the brilliant southern light formed shaped his future work Norman1977, L&L, Grove14 p189
Career: Initially he worked in the family iron forges at Denain & at a sugar refinery & only dedicated himself definitively to art in 1848.  He travelled to southern Germany, Rome & the Bay of Naples, 1849, returning around 1852.  He visited Barbizon & Marlotte & worked in the forest.  Between 1863 & 65 he went back to Italy &, after serving in the Garde Nationale in 1870 at Herisson, spent the summers there until around 1879.  He first exhibited in the Salon of 1853 & from the late 1860s achieved fame & success Grove14 p188-89, Bouret p212, Norman1977
Oeuvre: Prolific landscapes & townscapes in oils, watercolour, together with some still-lifes & figure subjects; & also etchings Bouret p252, OxDicArt, Grove14 p189
Characteristics: Unlike the Impressionists his landscapes present clear forms in solid paint.   The landscapes often feature striking foreground trees which stand out against blue or pale skies as in paintings by those who belonged to the Barbizon School L&L, webimages, Bouret
Grouping: The Barbizon School Norman1977

..HARRIS, Edwin, 1855-1906, England; Rural Naturalism Movement

Background: He was born at Ladywood, Birmingham F&G p114
Training: At 14 he entered the Birmingham School of Art & in 1880 Verlat’s Academy in Antwerp F&G pp 114-5
Career: After returning from Antwerp, he took a studio in Birmingham.    He joined the Birmingham Art Circle & in 1885 the Royal Birmingham Society of Artists.   In 1882 he went to Pont Aven & in 1883 settled in Newlyn. Leaving in 1895.   He returned to Birmingham in 1898 F&G pp 114-6.
Oeuvre: Genre, figurative subjects, coastal scenes WoodDic
Characteristics/Verdict: His Newlyn paintings do not depict the anguished lives of the fisherfolk but gentle & pretty girls etc in simple cottage interiors.   Some of his works are charming with fluent & carefully observed light effects F&G p114.
Circle: His lifelong friend W. A. Breakspear, W.J. Wainwright, Frank Bramley, etc F&G pp 114-5

Alexander, HARRISON, 1853-1930, USA:

Background: He was born in Philadelphia NGArtinParis p213
Training: At the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts NGArtinParis p213
Career/Role: By 1879 he was in France where he remained.  He painted at Pont-Aven, Concarneau & Fontainebleau.   He migrated from the Salon to the Société National des Beaux-Arts exhibiting at its first show in 1890.  He advised Philadelphia collectors, especially John G. Johnson who built up a fine collection now at the Philadelphia Museum of Art NGArtinParis pp 180, 213
Oeuvre/Characteristics: Large, atmospheric, almost monochromatic seascapes, & landscapes & summer scenes at artist colonies  NGArtinParis p213, web images
Personal: He was garrulous & something of a Whistterian dandy NGArtinParis p213
Circle: The numerous artists he met on his summer trips with Rodin being a particular friend NGArtinParis p213
Grouping: Symbolism NGArtinParis p213
Brother: Birge was also a painter & long resident in Europe NGArtinParis p213

-HARTIGAN, Grace, 1922-2008, USA:

Background: Born Newark, New Jersey OxDicMod
Training: Night School while studying as an industrial draughtsman during the war OxDicMod
Influences: de Kooning OxDicMod
Career: In the 1940s after the war, she travelled to Europe & lived in Mexico before settling in New York OxDicMod
Characteristics: Brilliant, rich colour with thick black outlines surrounding the forms.   Her work varies from a heavily dramatic to a lighter mode  L&L, OxDicMod
Aim: To paint that which is vulgar & vital in modern America & its possible beauty OxDicMod
Status: In 1960 she was described as America’s most famous female artist OxDicMod
Grouping: Abstract Impressionism being a leading figure in its second wave L&L

*HARTLEY, Marsden, 1877-1943, USA:

Background: Born at Lewiston, Maine OxDicMod

Training: At the School of Art, Cleveland, & then from 1898at the Art Students League & the National Academy of Design OxDicMod

Influences: Cezanne & Ryder.   His early depictions of German soldiers were inspired by his friend Karl von Freyburg  who was killed during the War OxDicMod

Career: In 1900 he returned to Maine, although he spent the winter in New York.   In 1909 Stiglitz gave him a one man exhibition &, partly with his help, went to Paris & Germany during 1912-13.   He frequented the Stein household & met Kandinsky & Marc in Berlin.   In 1913 he exhibited at the Armoury Show.   During 1914-16 he visited London, Paris, Berlin & Munich.   In 1916 he went back to America but returned to Europe in 1921.   After going back to Maine in 1934 he stayed apart from a visit to Nova Scotia in 1936 OxDicMod

Phases/Characteristics: Prior to the First World War he created a distinctive semi-abstract manner combining German pre-war military pageantry with American Indian motifs in a remarkable synthesis of modernist trends.   After retuning to America he went back to landscape, painting in a more representational but still highly formalised style.   Latterly he mostly painted rugged mountain & coastal scenes with blunt, block-like forms displaying the beauty & grandeur of nature OxDicMod

Status: He was the greatest early American modernist Hughes1997 p365

Personal: He was orphaned early; a homosexual in a fiercely prejudiced society; an Emersonian mystic in a materialistic society; a plain speaker who abhorred cultural pretention; & a political flea-brain who initially welcomed the War & backed the Kaisar.   Hartley was obsessed with a sense of estrangement, & afflicted by manic hopes &, according to Stieglitz, suicidal depression Hughes1997 pp 366, 368

*HARTUNG, Hans, 1904-89, (Germany):

Background: He was born in Leipzig OxDicMod
Training: He studied philosophy  at the University of Leipzig & art at the Academies in Leipzig, Dresden & Munich OxDicMod.
Career: During 1926-31 he mainly lived in Paris, from 1932 to 1934 on Minorca &, after visiting Germany, settled in Paris.  During the war he taught in the Foreign Legion & was badly wounded & lost a leg.   After the war he returned to Paris & became a French citizen OxDicMod
Oeuvre: Paintings, etchings, lithographs & a few sculptures.  He began painting abstracts during  1922, developing a sensuous, freely improvised style OxDicMod.
Phases: His earlier paintings feature thick black lines & blotches.   During the 1960s he engraved parallel lines into the painted surface with a steel comb.   His work is intensely expressive conveying a feeling of unease, urgency & monumentality OxDic, Mod, L&L
Feature: In 1929 he married the Norwegian painter Anna-Eva Bergman, 1909-87, divorced her, re-married, divorced, & re-married Bergman OxDicMod
Grouping: Art Informal of which he was hailed as a pioneer OxDicMod

..HARVEY, Harold, 1874-1941, England:

Background: He was born in Penzance into an old Cornish family, the son of a bank manager Wikip, Fox1985 p 45

Training: With Norman Garstin, & in the 1890s at the Atelier Julian under Constant & Laurens Fox1985 p45

Influences: Initially the early Newlyn artists, especially Stanhope Forbes,  but later Dod Procter stylised figures Fox1985 p45

Career: He first exhibited at the RA in 1898 7 & showed regularly between 1907 & 1941.   In the 1920s he became a Roman Catholic & was a close friend of  Bernard the Anglo-Catholic priest at St Hilary Fox1985 p47

Oeuvre: It was prodigious, though many of his paintings were small.   He painted rural, marine & genre subjects often featuring children, together with some religious subjects usually against a recognisable local background Fox1985 pp 45 -7

Phases/Characteristics: From around 1907 he began moving away from the tonal work of the earlier Newly artists.   He adopted a brighter palette, & gradually simplified his compositions.  However, he remained a realist & was only able to paint what he saw.   From about 1916 his work became flatter & more decorative & he began painting sophisticated, middle-class interiors Fox1985 pp 45-7.

Personal: He was a gentle, keenly humorous  man who lived a simple life with his painter wife, Gertrude.  He loved fishing & bird-watching, etc Fox1985 p45

.. HASENCLEVER, Johann , 1810-53, Germany:

Background: He was born at Remscheid south of the Ruhr.  His father was a tool smith in the local iron trade Grove14 p216, Wikip

Training: From 1827 at the Dusseldorf  Akademie under Friedrich Von Schadow but left after his ability was questioned.   He re-entered in 1836 & studied under Theodor Hildebrandt, a great admirer of the Dutch Golden Age.  In 1838 he trained with the still-life painter Wilhelm Preyer & his brother in Munich  Norman 1977, Wikip,  Grove14 p216

Influences: English painters including Hogarth, Rowlandson & Wilkie Grove14 p216, Norman 1977

Career: In 1840 he travelled to northern Italy visited Italy, returned to Dusseldorf, 1842, & joined the Berlin Akademie, 1843; was involved in the 1848 Revolution & belonged to the anti-academic artists’ association, Crignic Norman1977, Grove14 p216, Wikip

Oeuvre: Portraits, genre painting, satirical & humorous works as his Atelier, 1836 (Kunstmuseum,  Dusseldorf, in which he makes fun of himself & fellow students; Norman1977, Wikip

Characteristics/Phases: After his premature departure from the Dusseldorf Akademie, he returned to Remscheid & taught himself portrait painting.  From the early 1840s his painting became more fluid & he used bold colours as in Wine Tasting, 1843 (Alte National galerie, Berlin) with its strong chiaroscuro Grove14p216, Norman1977

Innovation: He was one of the founders of the Dusseldorf  School of genre painting, this being a relatively new development in Germany Norman1977, Wikip

Status/Verdict: He was one of the most versatile genre painters in Dusseldorf during the first half of the 19^th century Grove14 p217

Grouping: His naturalistic treatment and plein air study of light place him among the Düsseldorf Realists Norman1977

Reception: His first humorous genre scenes which found immediate popularity Norman1977.

Legacy: He influenced those who studied in Dusseldorf particularly Americans & Scandinavians Grove14 p217

Repute: Karl Marx identified his [as in] Worker’s Delegation Before the Magistrate as being proletarian Art.   This led to a renewed interest in Hasenclever’s paining in the German Democratic Republic after 1964.  He is not itemised in the Oxford Companion Wikip, Brigstocke

Sons: Peter, 1847-1920 was a drawing professor at a gymnasium & Ernst, born 1852, apparently became a painter Wikip

-HASSAM, Frederick Childe, 1859-1935, USA, US Impressionism

Background: Born Dorchester, Massachusetts, the son of a prominent Boston Merchant Grove14 p219
Training: He was initially apprenticed to a wood engraver then evening classes at the Boston Art Club; & at the Academie Julian in Paris under Gustave Boulanger & Jules Lefebre Grove14 p219
Influences: The Barbizon School & then in Paris a growing awareness of Impressionism Grove14 p219
Career: From the late 1870s to the mid-1880s he drew illustrations for children’s books, etc; by 1883 he had a Boston studio; visited Europe, 1883; lived in Paris, 1886-9; settled in New York & in 1889 started to spend his summers painting in picturesque New England, particularly the Isle of Shoals off New Hampshire.   He spent the summers of 1904 & 1908 in Oregon, & visited Europe, 1908, 1911 Grove14 pp 219-20 NGArtinP pp 154, 242
Oeuvre/Phases/Characteristics: Initially he mainly produced light-filled local landscapes in watercolour; became a painter of tonalist city scenes, usually at dusk or in rain as in his oil Rainy Day in Boston, 1885 (Museum of Art, Toledo, Ohio) Grove14 p219.  By 1887 his colours were lighter & more diverse [as in] as represented by the slightly later Poppies Isle of Shoals, 1891 (NG of Art, Washington), though he continued to paint urban scenes under overcast skies.   His brushwork also became looser & his forms more broken.   From 1910 he began painting works featuring flags in Paris & New York as in July Fourteenth, Rue Daunou, 1910 (The Met) His Oregon landscapes are also of a new decorative type as in his colourful nearly abstract Sunset at Sea, 1911 (Rose Art Gallery, Brandeis University, Waltham, Massachusetts); & his women in interiors are inventive, complex & decorative as in Tanagna, 1918 (National Museum of American Art, Smithsonian Institution, Washington) Gerdts1984 pp 63, 155, 158-9)
Feature: [His capacity to reinvent himself & continue finding  new subject matter.]
Grouping: By the early 1890s he was the most fully Impressionist American painter Gerdts1984 p63
Verdict: His work is clear and soft but sometimes saccherine OxDicCom

..HASTINGS, Francis/Viscount/Jack, 1901-90, England:

Background:  He was the 16^th Earl of Huntingdon Wikip
Training: At the Slade & under Diego Rivera Wikip
Career: He assisted Diego Rivera on the murals for the 1933 World Fair in Chicago, returned to London around 1935 & then taught  at the Camberwell  College of Art s & also at the Central London.   He belonged to the Artists International Association.   A Labour peer from 1939, he was Parliamentary Secretary to the Ministry of Agriculture & Fisheries, 1945-50  Wikip, M&R pp 14-6
Oeuvre/Characteristics: During the 1930s he painted in a Socialist Realist style & more lyrical subjects for Buscot Park & the Vineyards at Beaulieu M&R pp14-6

..HAWKINS, Louis, 1849-1910, France (Germany): Symbolism

Background: He was born at Stuttgart.  His mother was a baroness & his father English Wikip
Training: At the Academie Julian, Paris, 1881-91 GibsonM p233
Career: He first exhibited at the Salon in 1881 & then at the Rose Croix,   in 1895  took French citizenship.   He lived for a time with the radical-socialist politician Camille Pelletan, & spent his last years in Brittany mostly painting landscapes Wikip, GibsonM p233
Oeuvre/Characteristics: He painted strange, exotic subjects in a manner that ranged from the precise & detailed to the vague & misty GibsonM p233, Wikip
Feature: His painting The Haloes, 1894, depicts a sexy angel GibsonM p21
Friends: Whistler & Rodin Wikip
Grouping: Symbolism GibsonM p233

*HAYDON, Benjamin Robert 1786-1846, England:

Background: Born Plymouth, the son of a painter & publisher. Grove14 p261                  

Training: Apprenticeship with his father, & at the RA Schools from 1805 Grove14 p261

Influences: Reynolds’ Discourses fired his passion for history paintings, Fuseli,  the beauty & size of the Elgin marbles, & negatively by Wilkie’s anecdotalist Grove14  p261, Brigstocke, L&L, OxDicArt

Career: This began well.  His first high art painting was exhibited & sold at the RA, 1807; & he was commissions by the patrons George Beaumont & the Earl of Mulgrave.  However, one of the works was criticised & removed to a less prominent position at the RA.  This provoked a mistrust of patrons & the art establishment, he quarrelled with Beaumont, & thereafter almost always exhibited privately with an admission charge.  He campaigned for the purchase of the Elgin Marbels & they were bought by the state in 1816.  His insistence on working on a vast & time consuming scale led to him refusing other work & in 1823 he suffered the first of a series of bankruptcies & imprisonment.   Nevertheless his [as in] Christ’s Entry into Jerusalem, 1814-2 0 (St George’s Seminary, Cincinnati) & other huge works, were much admired by contemporaries & possess grandeur.  He failed in the competition for the Parliamentary  murals, 1843, but his Mock Election  of 1847 was bought by the King.   In the end he committed  suicide in despair Grove13 p262, L&L

Oeuvre: History paintings, contemporary genre, &  portraits in order to make money L&L

Characteristics: His history paintings, much laboured over, tend to be pompous & are an awkward combination of noble conception & cumbersome design, though his early [as in] Assassination of Denatus, 1806-9 (Marquess of Normandy Collection) is well composed.  His genre works are more vivid than his histories as shown by  his [as in] humorous narrative scene the Mock Election,1827,  (Buckingham Palace),  L&L, Grove14 p262

Pupils: Landseer & William Berwick Grove13 p 263

Circle: Keats & Wordsworth who wrote a sonnet about him.  He painted their portraits.  Hazlitt was a friend OxDicArt     

Innovations: His provincial lectures on art’s social purpose anticipated Ruskin & Morris OxDicArt

Verdict: His ambitions exceeded his talents.  Though aware of the need to court high society to make a living & convinced that the future of British history painting depended on benevolent patrons he was so convinced of the grandeur of his mission & his genius that he alienated them.  He combined democratic political views with elitism, scorning Lawrence for pandering to the rich & powerful.   Glorius failure was inevitable.  Sexual frustration may have been a contributory factor.  His early diaries proliferate with vows on chastity & he compared his frustrated pacing around his studio to that of a lion burning for sex OxDicArt, Craske pp 58-9

Circle: Keats, Shelley & Wordsworth who wrote a sonnet about him.  He painted their portraits & Hazlitt was a friend Brigstocke, OxDicArt, Craske pp58-59

-HAYEZ, Francesco, 1786-1846, Italy:

Background: Born in Venice, a fisherman’s son Grove14 p264

Training: In the studio of his uncle who hoped to train him as a picture restorer; under Francesco Maggiotto, 1798; life drawing classes & then colour tuition, 1802-6; the Venetian Academy under Conte Leopoldo Cicognata from 1808; & then the painting school under the Neoclassicist Teodoro Matteini Grove 14 p264.

Influences: Neoclassicism from Maggiotto & Matteini.  Ingres was of particular importance  Grove14 p264, Brigstocke

Career: He moved to Rome with a scholarship, studied Raphael in the Vatican Stanza, was greatly influenced by the Neoclassical sculptor Canova; went to Naples; painted his [as in] Neoclassical masterpiece Rinaldo & Armida, 1814 (Ca’ Pesaro, Venice); returned to Rome, 1815; went to Venice & Padua where he painted portraits & decorated palaces; moved to Milan, 1823, where he began a highly successful career as a history & portrait painter exhibiting at the Brera & established a popular private school, 1825; & became a professor & then director at the Brera, 1550-80 Grove 14 pp 204. Norman1977, Brigstocke, L&L

Oeuvre: Oils, frescoes & prints.  Patriotic scenes from Italian history; together with individualistic & evocative portraits of most of Italy’s leading artistic, & political figures as well as fashionable women Grove14 pp 265-7, Norman1977, Brigstocke

Phases: Early Neo-Classical works Norman1977

Characteristics: His mature history paintings use the rich colouristic treatment of the 17^th century Venetians.  Despite coming to be regarded as a Romantic his technique remained essentially linear rather than painterly Norman1977, Brigstocke

Status: He was the leading Italian artist of the Romantic School Norman1977

Repute: His historical work fell into disrepute but his oeuvre was reassessed during the 1970s Grove14 p267

..HAYLLAR, Edith, 1860-1948, England:

Background: Her father was the painter James Hayllar, 1829-1920 WoodDic
Training: By her father & it was of a thorough nature Wikip
Career: She exhibited at the RA between 1892 & 1897 but retired from painting when she married the Rev Bruce McKay around 1900 WoodDic, Wikip
Oeuvre: Genre & still-life WoodDic
Characteristics/Verdict: Her paintings have great charm & record in an exact, unpretentious manner life in a Victorian middle-class family.  She painted one of the most famous of all Victorian tennis paintings A Summer Shower  though it does not show the game but a courting couple WoodDic, Wood C1999 p255,Wikip
Sisters: Jessica, 1858-40; Kate, active 1883-98; Mary/Mrs Wells, active 1880-5.  They were all painters WoodDic

*HAYMAN, Francis, c1708-76, England; British Golden Age:

Background: His success was due to the lack of good portrait painters in England & a growing middle-class clientele Grove14 p269

Training: He was apprenticed to the decorative painter Robert Brown from 1718 until about 1725.   His success in portraiture was due to the Grove14 p269

Influences: French rococo Grove14 p269

Career: He was in London from the age of ten & he  began as a scene painter from 1732, moving  to Drury Lane, 1736; began painting Conversation Pieces & portraits in the late 1730s; produced large decorative works for the supper-boxes at Vauxhall Gardens, around 1741-2; as in The Milkmaid’s Garland (V&A), collaborated with his friend Hogarth on the decoration of the Foundling Hospital; went with him to France 1748; was an active promotor of the St Martin’s Lane academy &  chairman of a committee for founding a public academy; was instrumental in founding England’s first formal exhibiting society, the Society of Artists, which he headed 1765-8; & was a founder member of the RA, 1768.  Ill health made it increasingly difficult for him to paint & he became the RA librarian which was a largely honorary post Grove14 p269, L&L, Vaughan1999 p30, Waterhouse1953 p195, OxDicArt

Oeuvre: Paintings & engravings of extremely varied subjects, including landscapes, genre, history paintings, religious works, fancy paintings & portraits  L&L, Grove14 p269 , Vaughan1999 p30

Characteristics: His figures have large noses & shambling legs & he used French rococo wit with most appeal & charm.   However, his portraits are often repetitious & stolid , only occasionally enhanced by informality.  Even in his fancy pictures his works often feature works feature faces that are smug & equine as in the history painting the Finding of Moses, 1746 (Foundling Museum).  He is a painter that is easily recognised OxDicArt, Vaughan1999 p30, Grove14 p269, Waterhouse1953 pp 196-7

Technique: He painted wet on wet Vaughan2002 p28

Innovations: The theatrical Conversation Piece & Shakespearian scenes Grove14 p269

Verdict/Status: He was the period’s most versatile British artist & a pivotal figure in British art, though his status diminished after 1755 with the arrival of Giovanni Cipriani OxDicArt, L&L, Grove14 p269

Associates: Gravelot, Hogarth & his pupil Gainsborough  L&L, Grove14 p 269

..HAYTER, Sir George, 1792-1871, England:

Background: Born St James’, London;

his father Charles, 1761-1835, was a miniaturist Grove14 p270

Training/Influences: By his father; at the RA Schools 1808 but he soon ran away to sea; & then in Italy from 1816 where he attended Canova’s studio & absorbed his Classical style Grove14 p270, Wikip

Career: He was appointed Painter of Miniatures & Portraits by Princess Charlotte, 1815; settled in Italy, 1826; was in Paris, 1828; returned to England 1831; became the Queen’s Portrait & Historical Painter, 1837; then Principal Painter, 1841; was knighted , 1842; but because Albert preferred Winterhalter, etc, he lost out.  He had a lucrative practice as a fashionable portrait painter Wikip, Grove14 p270 , WoodDic

Oeuvre: Portraits & history paintings both current & in past times; religious paintings, fluent, often Italian landscapes in watercolour; & etchings, decorative designs & sculpture Grove p270

[As in] Examples: (i) Religious The Prophet Ezra, 1815 (Downton Castle, Herefordshire); (ii) Classical Venus supported by Iris complaining to Mars, 1820; (iii) Chatsworth House, 1820); (iv) Past Times; Trial of William Lord Russel, in the Old Bailey in 1683, 1825 (Woburn Abbey, Bedfordshire); (v) Current History Moving the Address to the Crown on the Opening of the First Reformed Parliament, 5 February 1833, 1833-43 (National Portrait Gallery); (vi) Portraits Victoria Duchess of Kent (Royal Collection); (vii) Landscapes: After the Storm (The Walters Museum, Baltimore).

Characteristics/Verdict: What these & other paintings by Hayter have in common is impact, grandeur, romanticism & drama due in particular to their size, historic or current subject matter,  huge groups of figures or the striking climatic conditions webimages & see Grove14 p270, WoodC 1999p279 , OxDic Art

Gossip: He made an unfortunate early marriage & then lived openly with his mistress until her death in 1827, mixing freely with many aristocratic families Grove14 p270

Brother: John 1800-95 was chiefly a portrait draughtsman in chalks & colour Grove14 p270

 -HEADE, Martin Johnson, 1819-1904, USA:

Background:  He was born in Bucks County, Pennsylvannia.   His father was a prosperous farmer Norman1977
Training: Thomas Hicks Norman1977
Career: He visited Europe from about 1837 to 1840, spending two years in Rome.  Heade was a compulsive wanderer living in many American cities & travelled in Central America.   In 1863 he went to Brazil to illustrate an unpublished book on hummingbirds Norman1977
Oeuvre: About half of it was landscape & he painted a large series of hummingbirds perched amid rich flowers & foliage Norman1977, Wilmerding p215
Characteristics: His landscapes have poetic vision together with precise realism with particular attention to atmospheric & light effects Norman1977
Status & grouping: It has been that together with Lane he was one of the main exponents of Luminism Norman1977.   However, many of landscapes are do not deal with light in a lumanist fashion Wilmerding p215

..Charles HEAPY, 1820-81, Thomas senior’s son & Thomas Frank’s brother, England; British Golden Age

Background: Heapy was born in London Grove14 p279
Training: At the RA schools Grove14 p279
Career: In 1839 he became an artist for a New Zealand company for which he made topographical views & painted landscapes.   He  settled in Auckland where he was a Provincial Surveyor & member of the House of RepresentativesGrove14 p279
Characteristics: Fresh & brightly coloured watercolours with crisp outlining.   He had an almost naive vision Grove14 p279

Waterfield, Giles, & French, Anne Below Stairs 400 years of servants’ portraits cited as W&F

..Thomas Frank HEAPY, 1813-73, Thomas senior’s son & Charles’ brother, England:

Background: Born London Grove14 p278
Influences: Italy religious art/portraiture Grove14 p279
Career: In 1831 he visited Italy with his father & became enthusiastic about Italian religious art & portraiture.   During 1859-62 he exhibited portraits of peasant women of various nationalities at the RA Grove14 pp 278-9
Oeuvre/Phases: Initially he was a portrait painter in watercolour but moved into subject paintings & history paintings in oils.   He also painted landscapes WoodDic, Webimages

..HEBERT, Ernest, 1817-1908, France; Academic Painting, etc.

Background: Born Grenoble.  His father wished him to become a lawyer & he moved to Paris in 1834 & began studying law but after winning the Prix de Rome in 1839 his father permitted art Grove14 p283

Training: Drawing lessons from the painter Benjamin Roland from age 10, in Paris under Pierre-Jean d’Angers, & later under Paul Delaroche.  He entered the Ecole des Beaux-Arts, 1836, & studied at the Academie de France in Rome from 1840 Grove14 p283

Influences: Ingres Grove14 p283

Career: He remained in Italy until 1847 working in Florence & Ischia & copying Michelangelo, returned to Paris, 1848, established his reputation with his as in Malaria, 1850 (Musee Herbert); was   Director of the Academie de France in Rome, 1866; was elected to the Academie des Beaux-Arts, 1871, & its President, 1878-79;  retuned as Director of the Roman academy 1885-1896 Grove14 p283

Oeuvre: Landscapes, religious paintings, genre, erotica & portraits of society women after 1858 Grove14 p283

Speciality: Doleful young females Grove14 p283

Characteristics: His works have strong light effects & as in his Music (Musee du Petit-Palais, Paris) curiously contrasting colours with the crude green of the plants & the delicate pink of the carnations & dress Celebonovic p169,

Phases: Later on, his works have a dark, mysterious spirituality with affinities to Symbolism as in Sleep of the Infant Jesus, 1886 (Louvre), together with works on the theme of music Grove14 p283

Patrons: The Comte de Nierkerk who he met when travelling to Rome Grove14 p283

Verdict: His scenes from history or Italian peasant life are realistically painted  but sometimes with a sentimental literary accent Norman1977, Celebonovic p169

Grouping: He was at least in his later work an Academic Painter Celebonovic p184

Repute: He is not itemised in the Oxford Companion & none of his works have been classed as worth seeing before death 1001

Collections: Musee Herbert, La Tranche

-HECKEL, Erich, 1883-1970, Germany; Expressionism Movement

Background: Born Debelyn, near Dresden, Saxony Grove14 p284, OxDicMod

Training: Architecture under Fritz Schumacher at the Technische Hochschule, Dresden, where he met Ernst Kirchner & Fritz Bleyl Grove14 p284

Career: He formed Die Brucke with Kirchner & Bleyl in 1905; abandoned architectural study though continued to work for an architect until 1907; had summer holidays with the group on the Moritzburg lakes, near Dresden, 1909-11; assumed a managerial role & calmed disagreements; gradually moved with the group from Dresden to Berlin after 1911; volunteered for military service, 1914; was declared unfit but worked as a medical orderly; briefly belonged to the November Gruppe; worked on the mural cycle Stages of Existence, 1922-3 (Anger museum, Erfurt); signed the Aufruf dsr Kulturschaffenden, a loyalty pledge to Hitler in 1934, but nevertheless had his work declared decadent, 1937; left Berlin for Carinthia, 1941; moved to Hemmenhofenon Lake Constance; taught at the Kunst Akademie, Karlsruhe, 1949-55 OxDicMod, Grove14 p284,

Oeuvre: Painting, prints especially woodcuts, & sculpture Grove14 p284, Brucke Museum site

Phases/Characteristics: His early landscapes were Van Gough-like & he, together with other group members, moved from bright colours & harsh contrasting complementariness to a milder palette with clearer delineation & an enhanced graphic element as in Canal in Berlin, 1912 (Wallraf-Richartz Museum, Cologne).  His work was more lyrical than that of other Brucke members featuring sickness & anguish as in Convalescent Woman, 1913 (Bush-Reisinger Museum, Harvard).  It became more tragic expressing the agony of war in landscapes through conflict of the elements.   Later his work became calmer as he tried to combine Die Bruke achievements & painting of a traditional type in his watercolour landscapes, etc Dube pp 54-5, Grove14 pp 284-5,webhimages

Verdict: His woodcuts are some of the most important in the 20^th century Grove14 p284
Grouping: Expressionism Grove14 p284
Collections: Brucke Museum, Berlin

-Willem HEDA, 1599-1680, Gerrit’s father, Netherlands=Haarlem:

Career: He became a top official in the Haarlem guild in 1637 & several times thereafter Haak p247
Oeuvre: Still-life L&L
Phases: From 1640 he painted larger & more decorative pictures with touches of colour & more dramatic chirascuro, & in a new vertical format L&L
Characteristics: At least some of Heda’s still-lifes have the disturbing combination of displaying a finished meal, with a tumbled vessel, & of appearing extraordinary contrived.   This is an unsettling combination of naturalism & artifice, intensified by the harmonious colouring & tonal effects.   Witness the three pictures in the Mauritshuis.
Firsts: With Claesz the tonal breakfast piece of a simple meal placed around eye level & usually in silvery tones L&L

Heem.   See de Heem

Heemskerck.   See van Heemskerck

Heemskerk.   See van Heemskerk

..HEIM, Francois, 1787-1865, France:

Background: Born Belfort, the son of the decorative artist Joseph Heim, active 1781 until after 1788 Grove14 p310
Training: Francois-Andre Vincent, 1803  Norman1977, Grove14 p310
Career: Won the second Rome prize, 1806.   He was highly successful under the Restoration, painting at least ten major works for churches in Paris.   However, he is said to have  outlived his fame Grove14 p310, Norman1977
Oeuvre: Religious, mythological works & history paintings both current & past time Grove14 p310
Characteristics/Verdict: He specialised in painting large group portraits as in the well composed Charles X Distributing Prizes after the Salon of 1824, 1825 (Louvre).  His work featured theatrical light effects as in the Recovery of the Royal Bones from St Denis in 1817, 1822 (St Denis, Abbey)
Patronage: He worked almost exclusively working for the Church & the State Grove14 p311
Grouping: Turn of the century Neoclassicism Norman1977

 ..HEINRICH, August, 1794-1822, Germany:

Background: He was born at Dresden Norman1977
Training: At the Dresden Academy, 1810; in Vienna under Mossmer, 1812; & then at the Dresden Academy again, 1818 Norman1977
Influences: The Oliviers & Schnorr von Carolsfeld Norman1977
Oeuvre: Landscapes Norman1977
Characteristics: The intimate details of foliage & rocks in works that share the religious reverence for nature of the Nazarenes Norman1977
Grouping: He was one of a number of contemporary artists who were painting Constable-like sketches all over Europe Honour 1979 p69
Friends: Friedrich & Dahl who were both close Norman1977

-Joseph HEINTZ, the elder, 1564-1609, Daniel’s brother & father of Ferdinand & Joseph the younger:

Background: He was born in Prague Grove14 p319
Training: With Hans Bock I in Basle Grove14 p319
Influences: Italian & old German painting Grove4 p319
Career: Around 1584 he went to Rome & then to Venice.    In 1591 he entered Rudolf II’s service as an  artist, architect & art buyer.   During 1592-5 he was mainly in Rome but thereafter was active throughout the Hapsburg lands in central Europe.   In 1598 he became a citizen of Augsburg Grove14 p319 L&L
Oeuvre: Ovidian history paintings & mythologies, religious works on panel, canvas & copper, & portraits Grove14 p319.
Characteristics: He developed a personal & highly painterly style with violently agitated figures on a shallow stage, powerful colour & a complex interplay of mainly cool tones Grove14 p320.
Verdict: He was the most notable member of the family Grove14 p318.

-Joseph HEINTZ, the Younger, recorded 1600-active 1678, Joseph the Elder’s son, Italy=Venice (Germany):
Background: He was born at Augusburg Grove14 p321
Training: With his stepfather Matthaus Gundelach, 1617-21 Grove14 p321
Career: He became a Catholic.   By 1625 he was in Venice but spent long periods in Rome during the 1630s & 40s where he probably remained Grove14 p32, L&L
Oeuvre: Religious pictures including works supporting the Counter-Reformation & depictions of Venetian views & festivities.  Also genre & allegories etc Grove14 p321-2, Levey1959 p73
Characteristics: His lively Venetian paintings contain numerous figures sometimes in grotesque attitudes, & his allegories contain fabulous hybrid, Bosch-like creatures Levey1959 p73, L&L, Grove14 p322.
Reception: Contemporaries thought his work extraordinary & bizarre Grove14 p322
Foreshadowed Luca Carlevaris & Canaletto Grove14 p322
Pupils: Francesco Trevisani Grove14 p332

HEISIG, Bernhard, 1925-2011, Germany:

Background: He was born at Breslau/Wroclaw.   By the early 1970s art of a more critical type had gained favour OxDicMod
Training: Until 1951 at the Leipzig Academy but he abandoned the course as politically rigid OxDicMod
Influences: Max Beckman, Otto Dix, Oskar Kokoschka Wikip
Career: He continued painting & after toeing the Party line became a professor at the Leipzig Academy, 1961; then  rector; but he made a speech in 1964 calling for provocative  & attacking art; was dismissed from his rectorship but then recanted.  His painting Time & Life a disquieting & almost bewildering panorama of German history was hung in the Reichstag cafeteria after unification OxDicMod, Deutscher Bundestag site
Characteristics: Somewhat puzzling multiple images & historical references in an expressionistic style OxDicMod
Status/Influence: He ultimately became a leading figure in East German art & was a highly influential teacher of Neo Rauch & others who became stars in post-Communist art OxDicMod
Grouping: The East German Leipzig School Wikip
Repute: He was highly regarded on both sides of the Berlin Wall Wikip

-HELD, Al, 1928-, USA:

Background: Born New York OxDicMod
Training: Art Students League, 1948-9 OxDicMod
Influences: Jackson Pollock OxDicMod
Career: After training he spent two years in Paris OxDicMod
Characteristics/Phases: Initially Abstract Expressionism but from around 1960 his work featured clean-cut, bold, brightly coloured geometric forms which appear volumetric, thrusting us towards the viewer.  This work is similar to Hard-Edge Painting but uses heavily textured paint.   From 1967 he painted white interlocking linear structures on a black ground but reintroduced colour in the 1980s OxDicMod, Leymarie pp 62,71, webimages

-HELION, Jean, 1904-87, France:

Background: Born Couterne, Orme Grove14 p329
Training: He was self-taught OxDicMod
Influences: Mondrian OxDicMod
Career: He moved to Paris & was apprenticed to an architectural firm; painted full-time from 1925;  signed Van Doesburg’s Art Concrete manifesto, 1930; became a founder member Abstract-Creation, 1931; visited New York, 1932  & 1934; moved to America, 1936; became an important link between the American & European avant-gardes; joined the  French army, 1940; was taken prisoner but, after two years, escaped back to America; after the war returned to France; after going back to figurative art he was left isolated.  He was enterprising & energetic OxDicMod, Yorke p81
Oeuvre: Landscapes, still-life, OxDicMod
Phases: Early naturalism but by 1929 his work was uncompromisingly abstract having been introduced to Cubism by his friend Torres Garcia; disillusion with the Utopianism of geometric abstraction he returned  to figurative art & painted bold, colourful, everyday life scenes, & his [as in] Nude with Loaves, 1952 (The Tate).   After his escape  he said  “you don’t dream about angles or surfaces but about trees, women & bread”   His verdict regarding his former abstract colleagues was that, “They all had a taste for the convent” OxDicMod, Yorke p81

..HELLEU, Paul-Cesar, 1859-1927, France:

Background: Born Vannes Norman1977
Training: At the Ecole des Beaux-Arts, Paris, under Gerome Grove14 p363
Influences: Japanese prints Grove14 p363
Career: He spent ten years decorating plates to make money; visited London in 1885 with Gerome, returning frequently; established a reputation at the Salons of 1885-86; visited America in 1902, 1912 & 1920 where he portrayed American women & painted the ceiling of Grand Central Station, 1912.  He belonged to the Société National des Beaux-Arts Grove14 pp 363-64, Norman1977
Oeuvre: Paintings & prints which included pastels & impressionistic landscapes, seascapes & cathedrals as in Autumn at Versailles, c1897 (Musee d’Orsay), Norman1977; Grove14 p364
Characteristics: In his graphic work where he specialised in dry-point etchings he worked rapidly using a multiplicity of flowing lines.  His paintings, where he worked en plein-air, were of an Impressionist nature but in cooler colours Norman1977, Grove14 p363
Speciality: Dry-points & portraits of fashionable society beauties Grove14 p363
Friends: Sargent, Whistler, Alfred Stevens &  Boldini & Proust who were all close Norman1977, Grove14 p363
Feature: Proust partly based his Elstir on Helleu Norman1977
Patrons: Comte Robert de Montesquieu who introduced him into French society Grove14 p363

Helst.   See van deer Helst

Hemessen.   See van Hemessen

..HENDRIKS, Wybrand, 1744-1831, Netherlands:

Background: Born Amsterdam, the son of a sculptor Grove14 p386
Training: At the Drawing Academy, Amsterdam, 1772-4 Grove14 p386
Influences: Chardin Fuchs p146
Career: Until 1772 he worked as a landscape painter in a wallpaper factory in Amsterdam; owned his own until around1775 when he visited England; moved to Haarlem, 1776; lived in Ede,1782-5; returned to Haarlem where he became curator of the first Dutch museum for arts & sciences Grove14 p386
Oeuvre: Landscapes, still-life & portraits Grove14 p386
Characteristics: His works display sharp observation of the political, social & cultural scene in Haarlem, together with Chardin-like genre paintings as in Interior with a Sleeping Man & a Woman Mending Stockings (Frans Hals Museum, Haarlem) Grove14 p386

Hennequin de Bruges.   See Bondol

..HENNER, Jean-Jacques, 1829-1905, France:

Background: He was born at Bernheimer in Alsace into a peasant family but nevertheless received vigorous & continuing support from his father & siblings when his artistic talent became evident Norman1977,  Kingsley p376

Training: Under Goutzwiller in Altkirch, 1841; Gabriel-Christophe Guerin in Strasburg; 1844; & at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts under Michelle-Martin Drolling, from 1846, & Francois-Edouard Picot from 1851.   Having won the first Rome Prize, 1858, he was from 1859 at the French Academy in Rome, & visited Florence Venice, Milan & Naples Norman1977, Grove14 p390.

Influences: In Rome he fell in love with sombre masses of the trees, henceforth his signature; & he discovered Caravaggio, Correggio & the Venetians with Titian for nudes & Corot for landscape Kingsley p376, Norman1977, Grove14 p390

Career: In 1864 he returned to France & exhibited with enormous success at Salon during 1865-1903.   He taught at the studio for ladies with Carolus-Duran when women were not admitted to their Ecole des Beaux-Arts Grove14 p390, Wikip

Oeuvre/Phases: Initially he painted portraits & scenes of Alsatian peasant life, then religious works, followed by idyllic paintings of the ancient world featuring nymphs, maids & quasi-mythological subjects as in Biblis, 1867 (Musee des Beaux-Arts, Dijon); & from 1870 Symbolist meditations on the theme of death as in his Magdalene & Dead Christ series as in Magdalene in the Desert, 1874 (Musee Augustin’s, Toulouse) & Dead Christ, 1884 (Musee de Beaux-Arts, Lille).  His nudes were erotic. Throughout his career he painted sensitive portraits in which he sought to capture the inner life of the sitter.  He also painted landscapes Grove14 p390, Norman1977, Kingsley p376, Wikip

Characteristics: Strong chiaroscuro with pale figures against dark backgrounds but softened using sfumato Grove14 p390   

Speciality: Allegorical nudes melting mysteriously into the landscape Norman1977

Status: He was among the most feted French  artists of late 19^th century Norman1977
Pupils: Dorothy Tennant Wikip
Model: Susanne Valadon Wikip
Collections: Musee National Jean-Jacques Henner, Paris

*HENRI, Robert, 1865-1929, USA; Aschan School Movement

Training: The Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts.   This was still under Eakins’ influence which was transmitted by Anshutz Hughes1997 p323

Influences: Eakins, together with Manet’s realism, dark palette & virtuoso brushwork.   Then through Manet back to Goya, Velazquez & Hals OxDicArt, Hughes1997 p323

Repulsions: Impressionism which he regarded as an insubstantial art of surfaces Hughes1997 p323.   He also disliked cant, aestheticism, art for art’s sake, Gerome & Bougereau Hughes1997 pp 324-5

Career: During 1888-91 he was in Paris under Bougereau, where he discovered Impressionism Hughes1997 p323.   From 1891 he taught at the School of Design for Woman, Philadelphia OxDicArt; Between 1895 & 1900 he was mostly in Europe absorbing Manet etc L&L, Hughes1997 p323.   He settled in New York where he taught between 1902 & 1912 at the School of Art.   Henri organised an exhibition of The Eight in 1909 & in 1910 he opened his own school L&L, Hughes1997 p324.   During 1915-28 he taught at the Art Students’ League OxDicArt

Phases: After an early Impressionist phase, he adopted a rich-dark palette & a simple & direct style during 1895-6.   He also made his first large-scale figure painting.   Henceforth he painted portraits, & cityscapes of New York which included East & North River subjects & street scenes.   After 1902 he gave up painting urban subjects & devoted himself to figure painting Perlman pp 55-7.   His portraits gradually became increasingly colourful L&L

Beliefs: He favoured an anarchistic libertarian, stateless society Bjelajac p293.    “We don’t need any government or any churches, we need more imagination…we need to think more.   The people should be taught to think”.   “Everything is beautiful! … People wouldn’t see the beauty of this [studio] floor, with its light & shade of colour.   They would only see dirt & spots” Perlman pp 28, 140. The sketch hunter is “looking for what he loves, he tries to capture it.  Italy’s found anywhere, everywhere” Hughes1997 p325.   The foremost requirement for art students (recalled du Bois) were guts & real man qualities, these were necessary in order to succeed in the face of uninterested American public RAMag Spring 2013 p42

Verdict: His work has a certain dash but is generally rather superficial & mediocre OxDicArt, BrownM1955 p10

Students: Bellows, Bruce, Davis, Hopper, Rockwell Kent, Man Ray, Trotsky Hughes1997 p324

 Influence: The future Ashcan artists began as hack illustrators & it was Henri who imbued the Ashcan group with a sense of destiny & the belief that expressing the vitality of the American scene was a worthy artistic credo BrownM1955 pp 9-10

..George HENRY, 1858-1943, Scotland; Rural Naturalism Movement

Background: He was born in Ayrshire McConkey1989 p156
Training: At the Glasgow School of Art.   He painted in the early 1880s in W. Y. Macgregor’ life studio & studied at the Academie Julian, 1883 & 1886 McConkey1989 p156, Gtove14 p 397.
Influences: Bastien-Lepage & Melville Billcliffe p116
Career: He painted outside with Guthrie, Crawhall & Walton & produced his first major exhibit Head of the Holy Loch, 1882 Grove14 p397.   From 1887 he spends time with Hornel in Kirkcudbright, often painting side by side & in The Druids, 1890, Star in the East & murals painting joint works.   During 1893-4 they painted in Japan Grove14 p39, Bullcliffe p234.   1889 Galloway Landscape acclaimed McConkey1989 p156
Phases: Initially his style was Realist as seen in Cottar’s Garden, 1885 Grove14 p397.   Around this time, he began painting enclosed & claustrophobic woodland views, although they were still perspectival.   Then with increased flattening he concentrated on surface pattern, ending with merged brushstrokes in thickly applied paint obscuring boundaries between landscape & figures, & employing a narrow range of tones & colours, usually in a portrait format.   His Landscape of around 1886  is an early example of this type of work Bullcliffe pp 196, 236-7.   In 1888 he painted a series of pictures on the seasons which were his first works using Impressionist effects for a decorative purpose.   His collaborative works with Hornel, 1893-4, have been described as proto art-nouveau.   He turned to portraiture by 1900 McConkey1989 pp 97, 156

..Paul HENRY, 1876-1958, Ireland; Impressionism, British & Irish:

Background: Born Belfast Grove14 p397
Training: At the Belfast School of Art, & in Paris at the Academy Julian, 1898 until about 1900, & at Whistler’s Academie Carmen.  He studied poster design under Alphonse Mucha Grove14 p397.Wikip
Career: After Paris he moved to London; retuned to Ireland, 1910; visited Achill Island from 1912; worked for some years on the Erris peninsula; moved to Dublin, 1920; helped found the Society of  the Dublin Painters; designed poster for the LMS railway during the mid-1920s; & became blind, 1945 Grove14 pp 397-8, Wikip
Oeuvre: Landscapes, some figure paintings, & posters Grove14 p397, webimages
Characteristics: After visiting Achill he adopted a strong vigorous outline & used thick impasto.  His west of Ireland landscapes is usually of a dramatic nature with big cloudy skies & striking mountains in colour ranging from grey-blue to blue-black.  There are often one-story cabins &/or water in the fore or middle ground.   A Connemara Village, c1934, contains all these features Grove14 p397
Feature: He had red-green colour blindness Wikip
Status: Between the wars he was Ireland’s best-known painter Wikip

..HERBERT, John, 1810-90, England:

Background: He was born at Maldon, Essex Wikip
Training: At the RA Schools, 1826-8 WoodDic
Influences: Dyce, the Nazarenes & Pugin WoodDic
Career: He exhibited at the RA in 1830, visited Italy & then painted many Italian historical subjects, was converted to Catholicism around 1840, became an RA in 1846, & worked on Palace of Westminster frescoes from 1850 to 1864 & after WoodDic, Wikip
Oeuvre: Initially portraits, then romantic genre &, after his conversion. mainly biblical though with some landscape & genre WoodDic
Characteristics: His landscapes & genre works are often charming but his biblical scenes tend to be dry & academic WoodDic
Grouping: The Keepsake School WoodDic

-HERBIN, Auguste, 1862-1960, France; Geometric Abstraction:

Background: Born Quivery near Cambrai OxDicMod
Training: Ecole des Beaux-Arts, Lille, 1900-2 OxDicMod
Influences: Cubism OxDicMod
Career: Moved to Paris, 1903; moved to a studio in the Bateau-Lavoir;  & was a founder member of Abstraction-Creation, 1931 OxDicMod
Oeuvre;  Paintings including landscapes & portraits during his figurative interval.  Also, decorative painted wood reliefs, & carpet & tapestry design OxDicMod
Phases: By about 1917 his work was fully abstract; he reverted to a more figurative but still Cubist-influenced style; from about 1926 he returned to pure abstraction 1926 returned; & after the war painted completely flat compositions featuring the circles, triangles, crescents, letters, etc OxDicMod
Influence: It was considerable on younger geometric artists OxDicMod

-HERKOMER, Sir Hubert von, 1849-1919, England (Germany); Victorian Modern Life and Rural Naturalism Movement

Background: Born Waal, Bavaria, the son of a wood-carver who settled in Southampton in 1857 Norman1977

Training: His father, the Southampton School of Art, 1864-5; & the South Kensington Schools, 1866-7, where he found the teaching aimless Grove14 p453

Influences: The delicate idealism of Frederick Walker & contemporary German realism Grove14 p453

Career/Phases: Initially he was an illustrator & from 1870 regularly contributed animated & expressive engraved scenes of contemporary life, often depicting poverty & distress. to The Graphic.  He exhibited at the RA from 1869, turned to oils, & in 1875 achieved success with The Last Muster: Sunday at the Royal Hospital, Chelsea, 1875 (Lady Lever Art Gallery, Port Sunlight)   In 1890 he became an RA & in 1891 decided to become a portrait painter.  From 1871 he had spent several months every year painting in Germany, William II awarded him the Order of Merit entitling him to the prefix von, 1899.  He ran an art school at Bushey, 1883-1904; followed Ruskin as Slade Professor of Fine Arts at Oxford, 1883-94; & made & acted in several films, 1912-4 Norman1977, Grove14 p453, Gillett p109,  L&L

Oeuvre: Realistically painted genre & historical subjects, landscapes, portraits where he had an international reputation, & also happy pastoral scenes under the influence of Walker WoodDic, Norman1977

Beliefs/Aim: “truth in art should be enhanced by sentiment”.  “To seek truth in sentiment & sentiment in truth”.  He promoted Socialism & Welsh nationalism Norman1977 Maas p237, Gillett p195, Norman 1977

Characteristics/Features: Together with the Last Muster his work display sympathy for the aged poor & those in distress as in Eventide: A Scene in the Westminster Union, 1878 (the Walker, Liverpool): Hard Times, 1885 (City Art Gallery, Manchester); On Strike, 1891 (RA collection).   Their impact is accentuated by large foreground figures,  exaggerated perspective & his painterly technique.   He was a dedicated plein air painter.  To ensure total accuracy for landscape he painted on the spot.  He & his family camped for ten weeks in North Wales while he painted the [as in] scene for Found, 1884-5 (Tate Gallery) Grove14 p453, Treuherz1993 p184, Tatesite.    

Grouping: Along with Luke Fildes & Frank Holl he belonged to a late Victorian Social Realist grouping of artists.   They began by working for The Graphic for which they produced illustrations of the lower sections of society & the darker aspects of British life; then converted their drawings into oil paintings exhibited at the RA &, when subject paintings & landscape fell out of favour, they acquired wealth & fame catering for the burgeoning market for portraits of the social & political elite.   Their switch to portraiture took place during 1881 or a few years later Gillett pp 101, 109-10, Maas p237

Movement: Victorian Modern Life for which See Section 9 

Influenced: Van Gogh Grove14 p453

Pupil: William Nicholson Grove14 p453

-HERMAN, Josef, 1911-2000, Poland/Wales etc:

Background: He was born in Warsaw, the son of a Jewish cobbler OxDicMod.

Training: 1930-31 at the Warsaw School Art OxDicMod

Career: During 1935 he co-founded the Phrygian Cap group that was dedicated to painting working people.    In 1938 he moved to Brussels.   From 1940 he lived in Glasgow but went to London in 1943.   During 1948-61 he lived in a Welsh mining village, Ystradgynais, which he had first visited in 1943.   His huge panel Miners was one of the most important exhibits at the Festival of Britain.   In 1953 his works were shown at John Berger’s Looking Forward Exhibition.   In 1961 he moved to Sussex OxDicMod, F50s pp 23, 26, 65.   In 1990 he became an RA FlowersWeb.

Characteristics: Low colours; weighty in form & subject; & a poetic rather than a realistic mood L&L.   He had a rich mid-European technique which involved a slow build up with glazes in tempera & oil mix, creating a rich yet subdued glowing effect F50s p23

Feature: Much of his time at Ystradgynais was spent underground observing the miners with whom he felt a strong affinity & by whom he was accepted & known as Joe back or little Joe OxDicMod

Beliefs: He saw himself as a directly descended from the Flemish & French Realists, particularly Millet & Courbet F50s p23

Verdict: According to John Berger, he should not have painted miners as if they were peasants when they were lively & militant proletarians F50s p23

Promoters: Henry Roland who was a partner in Roland, Browse & Delbranco, the Cork Street art dealers F50s p26, OxDicMod

Friends: Jankel Adler in Glasgow; Leo Koenig OxDicMod, F50s p26

Influenced: Joan Eardley & made  a very positive contribution to the art of the 1950s F50s p26, Spalding1986 p155

*HERON, Patrick, 1920-99, England:

Background: He was born in Leeds OxDicMod
Training: 1937-9 at the Slade OxDicMod
Influences: Cubism; Abstract Expressionism? Nature L&L; Braque, Matisse OxDicArt
Career: During the 1930s & 40s he designed  for his father’s Cresta Silks.   He was a conscientious objector & did farmwork.   During  1947-50 & 1955-8 he wrote art criticism for the New Statesman etc;   In 1956 he turned  to Abstraction  & settled at  St Ives (Zennor)  OxDicMod
Phases: Soft bands of abstract colour & then in firmer fields & islands L&L.   His later work is rigorously simplified & concentrated on an explosive, brilliant, unmodulated colour & pictorial space Shone1977 p37
Characteristics:  He with Lanyon & Soulanges, but unlike Eardley, was content to take the freedom of expressive abstract painting as self-sufficient  & did not try to capture the dramatic intensity of immediate, transitory experience in permanent form Macmillan1994 p88
Beliefs: Colour was the only area in which painting could  develop L&L.   He believed in the autonomy of art & opposed Berger OxDicMod

–Francisco HERRERA the Elder, c1590-1657,  father of Francico the Younger, Spain=Seville; Spanish Eloquence and Baroque

Training: Pacheco L&L
Influences: Roelas OxDicArt
Oeuvre: Painter, engraver, minaturist & draftsamn with the pen L&L
Career: In about 1638 he moved to Madrid OxDicArt
Phases: From about 1610 he was a Mannerist.   Then under Roelas’ influence his brushwork became more liquid & during the mid-1630s he arrived at a boldly dramatic & colouristic manner L&L.   In the 1640s his painting went into decline as he modified it to accommodate the new taste for quiet, sentimental art that was affecting monasteries Brown1991 pp 202-3
Innovations: He antth icipated Murillo’s vaporous style L&L
Personal: He was notoriously bad tempered OxDicArt

-Francisco HERRERA, the Younger, 1622-85,  son of Francisco the Elder, Spain=Seville & Madrid:

Background: He was born in Seville BrownJ p194
Training: Probably at the Academy in Rome & in Naples BrownJ p194, L&L
Influences: Flemish & Italian art (like Rizi & Carreno) BrownJ p198
Career: He spent many years in Italy OxDicArt.  In 1654 he was in Madrid painting an altarpiece for the Carmelites of San Hermenegildo but had to return to Seville to sort out his father’s estate.   Here he set up shop & became very successful BrownJ pp 194, 204.   He later moved to Madrid becoming painter to Charles II in 1672, but worked almost exclusively as an architect from 1679 OxDicArt, L&L
Oeuvre: Paintings & architecture OxDicArt
Characteristics: His Stigmatisation of S. Francis of 1657 was a dynamic composition with a sketchy technique & softly rich colours & complicated poses Brown p205.
Innovations: Herrera’s sketchy technique & luminous colours anticipated Rococo L&L
 Personal: According to Palomino, who met him, he was a vain, arrogant man BrownJ p194

..HERRING, John, 1795-1865, England:

Background: born Surrey.   His brother & sons were sporting & animal painters Norman1977
Career: he was employed as an animal painter by the Duchess of Kent Norman1977
Speciality: Derby & St Ledger winners Norman1977
Oeuvre: racehorse paintings, also sporting & farmyard scenes Norman1977

-Gustavus HESSELIUS, 1682-1755, John’s father, USA/Sweden:

Background: Born Falun Grove14 p492
Training: In Sweden as a wood-engraver, gilder & painter Grove14 p492.
Influences: Baroque painting Grove14 p492
Career: He went to America in 1712, settled in Philadelphia, moved to Annapolis in about 1720, but returned to Philadelphia before 1730 mainly worked in Philadelphia.  He supplemented his income with utilitarian work Grove14 p492
Oeuvre: Mythological scenes, altarpieces & portraits Grove14 p492
Characteristics: His work was painterly & atmospheric.  The portraits convey a strong sense of character & reveal a growing taste for elegance & brighter colours prior to the Revolution Grove14 pp 492-3.
Innovations: He introduced greater realism & technical skill into American painting, probably painted the first mythological works, & produced the first works that properly depict the facial characteristics of American Indians Grove14 p 492.
Status: He was the leading painter in the Middle Colonies Grove14 p492
Collections: Historical Society of Pennsylvania. Philadelphia.

-John HESSELIUS, 1728-78, Gustavus’ son, USA:

Influences: He relied on European mezzotint prints for composition & fashion details & his earlier works are virtually coloured copies Grove12 p493.
Career: He settled in Annapolis, Maryland, in 1763 L&L
Oeuvre: Portraiture Grove14 p493.
Characteristics: His work was eclectic & he used clear, strong colour like that of Robert Feke.   In the late 1750s his portraits, following those of John Wollaston, are almond-eyed.   His later works have an increased emphasis on physical likeness & character Grove14 p493.
Grouping: His work was Rococo-like Grove14 p493.
Status: He was a leading portraitist in the Middle Colonies after 1750 Grove14 p493
Clientele: Middle class rather than powerful & wealthy Grove14 p493.
Pupil: Charles Wilson Peale L&L

Heyden.   See van der Heyden

-Edward HICKS, 1692-1780, USA:

Background: Born Langhorne, Pennsylvania Grove14 p510
Training: Apprenticeship to a coach maker where he learned painting & lettering Grove14 p510
Career: He was a coach & sign painter by trade, & in 1812 became a  Quaker minister.   In about 1820 he began to paint creatively & to produce about 100 versions of The Peaceable Kingdom all loosely derived an English engraving illustrating an Old Testament prophesy,   They feature benign animals, trusting infants & William Penn making his treaty with the Indians L&L
Characteristics: He was a naive painter with a strong sense of design who produced stylized forms in flat decorative colours    L&L, Grove14 p510.

..George HICKS, 1824-1914, England:

Background: He was born at Lymington, Hants, the son of a prosperous magistrate.   The market for modern genre scenes fell off around 1865 Grove 14 p511
Training: At Henry Sass’ Academy, London, & the RA Schools from 1844 Grove14 p511, WoodDic
Influences: Frith’s crowd scenes Treuherz1993 pp 108-9
Career: Initially he studied as a doctor & exhibited picturesque landscapes & small genre scenes from 1848.  The success of Dividend Day at the Bank, 1859, led him to paint other large journalistic explorations of London life in 1860-65.   However he turned to society portraits & biblical & historical genre Grove14 p511, WoodDic Reynolds1987 p11, Grove14 pp 511-2
Characteristics/Verdict: His later work has none of the charm or quality of his genre scenes WooDic

*HIGHMORE, Joseph, 1692-1780, England:

Background: He was born in London, the son of a coal merchant Grove14 p519
Training: Kneller’s Academy, 1713-5, & from 1720 St Martin’s Lane Academy Grove14 p519.
Career: He was articled to an attorney but got bored & set up as a portrait painter in the City but moved to Lincoln’s Inn Fields, 1723.  During 1732 he went to the Low Countries to study works by Rubens & Van Dyke & two years later to Paris where he viewed art at Versailles, etc.   In 1762 he retired to Cambridge & wrote about art Grove14 pp 519-20.
Oeuvre: Portraits, conversation pieces & 12 paintings from Pamela Grove14 p519
Characteristics: Following Kneller he painted in a lighter more pleasurable French style & not the unpleasing & heavier one of Hudson & Knapton which was in the tradition of Riley & Richardson Waterhouse1953 p165.  His compositions are informal & capture a likeness Grove14 p519
Feature: He used Van Aken for drapery Waterhouse1953 p167
Innovation: The hand-in-waistcoat posture Solkin2015 pp 134-5
Patronage: Although he was commissioned by the royal family, his sitters were mostly the metropolitan middle class where he built up a solid practice from around 1720 Solkin2015 p111, Grove 14 p519
Grouping: English Rococo BurkeJ p106

..HILDEBRANDT, Theodor, 1804-74, Germany:

Background: Born in Düsseldorf Norman1977
Oeuvre: A history, genre and portrait painter Norman1977
Career/Innovations: Hildebrandt studied at the Berlin Academy from 1823 and followed his teacher Schadow to Düsseldorf in 1826.   He was one of the founders of the Düsseldorf School Norman1977
Characteristics: Both Hildebrandt’s subject matter and composition owe a heavy debt to the theatre, especially Shakespeare.   Hildebrandt was admired as a Realist for his careful detail and sympathetic treatment of human situations. His paintings often contain veiled political protest Norman1977

*Anthony HILL, 1930-, England:

Background: He was born in London OxDicMod
Training: St Martin’s School of Art ,1937-9; & the Central School of Art & Design, 1949-51 OxDicMod
Characteristics/Phases: After a period of experimentation in the early 1950s, he adopted a highly disciplined form of abstraction.  In 1954 he made his first relief & abandoned painting two years later OxDicMod

–Carl HILL, 1849-1911, Sweden:

Background: He was born at Lund Norman1977
Training: 1871 at the Stockholm Academy, & briefly by Corot in Paris Norman1977
Influences: Initially Corot & Daubigny Norman1977
Career: In 1873 he went to Paris where he discovered the Barbizon School.  During 1878-80 he was hospitalized as insane.   Back in Lund he worked in semi-insane seclusion Norman1977, Kent p125
Characteristics:  Poetic & lyrical landscapes of dazzling luminosity Kent p125.    Apocalyptic visions of gloom & despair following a mental breakdown in 1878 Norman1977
Status: His later works could be Expressionist or Symbolist Norman1977

..Thomas HILL, c1661-1734, England:
Training: Faithorne for drawing; & Theodore Freres for painting Waterhouse1953 p144
Influences: Michael Dahl Grove14 p538
Oeuvre: Portraits inclding two bishops & one archbishop Grove14 p538
Characteristics: He painted original & refreshing portraits in a stereotyped era Waterhouse1953 p143.
Patronage: He worked for two generations of the Strangeways family at Melbury House, Dorset, where besides portraits he painted a vast mural around 1698 Grove14 p538
Circle: That of Robert, 1^st Earl of Oxford.  He was a close friend of his great librarian Humfrey Wanley Grove14 pp 538-9

-HILLER, Susan, 1942-, England (USA):

..HILLESTROM, Pehr, The Elder, 1732-1816, Sweden; National Romanticism:

Background:  He was born on Vaddo island where his uncle was the vicar Wikip

Training: By the landscape painter Johan Philip Korn & at the Royal Swedish Academy of Fine Arts under Guillaume Taraval.  He studied tapestry and carpet-making in Paris, and painting under Boucher, 1757-58 Norman1977

Influences: 17^th Century Dutch Old Masters & Chardin by whom he was inspired Kent p223, Norman1977

Career:  During 1757-58 he made a study trip to Paris, Belgium & Holland; became a master tapestry weaver & ran a weaving workshop in Stockholm from 1759.  He a became a board member of the Royal Swedish Academy, 1773; a professor of drawing, 1794; its Vice-Chancellor, 1805; & Director, 1810.  Furthermore from 1776 was Court Painter Wikip, Norman1977, Kent p16

Oeuvre: Landscapes, industrial scenes & genre works which feature both the cultured elite & the rural poor Kent p16, web images

Oeuvre: A genre painter who depicted the life of peasants and early industrial conditions, having started painting in oils around 1770 Norman1977

Characteristics: His paintings were objective and realistic & he used lighting effects such as torches and furnaces to heighten the drama of his paintings as in Visit to the Anchor Smithy, 1782 (Soder Fors Estate) Norman1977, Kent p16

Speciality: He produced about 80 paintings of the customs & costumes of the agrarian population web on the following painting.

Innovation: He was the first artist to deliberately depict the traditional dress of the Swedish & also the Finnish people as in People from Mora in Dalecarlia, c1772, this being a region in Sweden (Hallwyl Museum, Stockholm)

Patrons: Gustave III who commissioned him to paint three pictures of peasants in their costumes, 1782, [of which the above work must be one]. Web commentary on the Mora painting

Pupils: The Finn Alexander Laureus Kent p73

Legacy: He led the development of the national school in Swedish art, both through his works and as an influential teacher Norman1977

Son: Pehr the Younger, was a landscape painter Norman1977

*HILLIARD, Nicholas, c1547-1518, England:

Training: As a goldsmith Brigstocke

Influences: The art of the French court which he visited in 1576-8 L&L

Career: His father sent him abroad to escape the Marian persecutions & in 1559 he was in the household in Geneva of John Bodley who published & part-translated the Geneva Bible.  He painted Elisabeth from 1572 & James, I retained him as his official miniaturise Grove14 p545, L&L, Brigstocke.

Oeuvre/Verdict: Miniatures & attributed, & inferior portraits L&L

Technique: He painted directly from life onto vellum mounted on card using lively brushwork Strong2000 p199

Characteristics: Works combining ornamental virtuosity with psychological penetration capturing likeness through delicate line & sunlit shadowed colour providing exceptional clarity.   His miniatures have the immediacy of a snapshot  L&L, Brigstocke, Strong2000 p199

Status: The greatest artist at the Elizabethan court L&L

Aim: In his Arte of Limning, c1600, he advocated the depiction of “these lovely graces, witty smiling, & these stolen glances which suddenly, like lightening, pass, & another countenance taketh place” L&L

Innovations: The use of flames, hearts, roses etc to enhance the emotional range & during the 1690s full-length portraits of courtiers in allegorical settings L&L, Brigstocke

Son: Lawrence, 1582-after after 1640 was also a miniaturist L&L

-HILLIER, Tristram, 1905-83, England:

Background: He was born in Peking but educated in England L&L.   His father, who was a manager for the Hong Kong & Shanghai Bank, died in 1924 leaving him financially comfortable OxDicMod

Training: 1926-7 at the Slade under Tonks & evening classes at the  Westminster School of Art.   He also attended the Academy Colagrossi under L’hotel, the Cubist painter OxDicMod, E&L p94

Influences: Van Eyck Times1/7/17 (Durrant).   Dali & the French Neo-Romantics OxDicMod

Career: Cambridge University & then as an apprentice-chartered accountant.  He painted in his spare time & soon began art training.  In 1927 he went to Cassis in southern France where he became friendly with Penrose, Fry & Vanessa Bell.   Until 1940 he mainly lived in the South of France but joined Unit One.   During the War he served with the Royal Navy Volunteer Reserve.   His family subsequently settled in Somerset but he still travelled widely OxDicMod, E&L p94

Phases: Hillier developed a semi-Abstract Surrealism redolent of sea & travel but from 1938, under Wadsworth’s influence, his pictures became brightly lit, full of incidentals detail & hyper-realistic L&L, E&L p94.   Many of his later paintings are religious reflecting his Roman Catholicism E&L p94

Technique: He often used tempera OxDicMod

Characteristics: Great sharpness of definition & smoothness of finish which created an other-worldly stillness & calm.   His  brushwork was freer in his later pictures & he used a palette knife OxDicMod

Friends: Wadsworth, Burra & Andre Masson E&L p94

Gossip: Tonks never spoke to Hillier after he made some slightly cubist drawings Times1/7/17 (Durrant)

*HILTON, Roger, 1911-75, England:

Background: Born Northwood.   His father was a doctor & his mother, Louisa Holdsworth, trained at the Slade OxDicMod

Training: At the Slade, 1929-31, & 1935-6: at the Academie Ranson under Bissiere OxDicMod

Influences: Poliakoff & de Stael & from 1953 Mondrian though not his geometric style OxDicMod

Career: During 1942-5 he was a prisoner of war, he then taught at Bryanston School,  & at the Central School for Arts & Crafts, 1954-6.   In 1965 he moved from London to St Just in Cornwall.   During his later years his work was severely affected by his heavy drinking OxDicMod

Phases/Characteristics: In 1950 he turned to abstraction but from 1955 reintroduced a sense of shallow space having previously felt that it projects outwards.   His response to Mondrian was to paint white grounds with wavering black lines stretching across the canvas.    From 1956 when he began visiting St Ives there are suggestions of beaches, boats & water, & in 1956 he painted female nudes.   His paintings have an air of spontaneity & are lyrical, lively & sometimes strikingly rough OxDicMod, L&L, Spalding1986 p174

Characteristics: His later more figurative work & his variations on the nude are sensual & have an assured calligraphy Shone1977 p37

Beliefs: That art is a life-or-death struggle with difficulty, an attitude derived from existentialism OxDicMod

Grouping: He was associated with & influential within the St Ives School L&L

..HILZ,  Sepp, 1906-67, Germany; Nazi:

Oeuvre: Nudes & genre featuring peasants, portraits & miniatures Webimages
Characteristics: His painting A Peasant Venus, 1944, is an interesting snapshot view & not chilly & statuesque as in Ziegler’s work Golomstock p180, Dunlop p236

.. HINDORF, Heinz, 1909-1990; Nazi; Germany:

Background: Born Jena web
Influences Durer Y&D p58
Politics: Like many war artists he never joined the party or its subsidiary organisations.  After Stalingrad it was clear that Germany would be defeated & “some of us” did not want victory Y&D p56
War Career: He was drafted into the army, February 1941; trained as a transport driver, made sketches of the ruins of Smolensk; & began regular work as a war artist on the southern Russian Front, spring 1942; moved with the German forces; was ordered to enter a war painting competition, summer 1941; having won all categories was transferred to the Propaganda Department, Potsdam; returned to Russia & then went to Italy, January 1944; was taken prisoner & worked for the Americans painting portraits of leading Fascists, etc Y&D pp 59-60
Oeuvre: War paintings in oils, tempera, pastel & watercolour subsequently stained-glass window design & semi-abstract free-standing rock-like forms Y&D pp56-61
Feature/Characteristics: The lot of the war artist was generally comfortable since he not engaged in combat & had a relatively free hand.  Even when he had a concrete task he was able to work as he wished, although the position was different for the propaganda grouping.  Moreover the position of the war artist depended on the good or bad will of his superiors, although personally he had just & friendly superiors including an Academy professor who rejected work which might have been considered defeatist if sent to Potsdam.   Of course artists knew that regime desired glorification but only a few assumed that their work should be biased Y&D pp 56, 59.   After the second battle of Kharkov in 1942 he had to paint the battlefield.  At first the devastation with its piled dead & terrible silence completely mesmerized him.  However he forced himself to sketch & produced a gruesome [as in] depiction of Dead Russians, Grade 164.  During rest periods & winter vacations, the preliminary studies were converted into finished paintings.  His speciality was paintings of Russian prisoners & suffering soldiers as in his splendidly, dramatic & moving Way into Captivity with its rich brown  colour & chiaroscuro.  However, none of his vacation works were used as the Russians were viewed as subhuman Y&D pp 56-57. 59
Collections: Stadt Museum, Michelstadt

-HIRSCHFELD-MACK, Ludwig, 1893-1965, Germany/Austria:

Background: He was born at Frankfurt-am-Main & was part Jewish Wikip

Training: At the Debschitz art school, Munich, 1912-4, & then at the University of Munich where he attended lectures on art history by Heinrich Wolfflin.   In 1919 he studied colour theory under Adolf Holzel at the Art Academy, Stuttgart, & enrolled at the Bauhaus, where he was taught by Johannes Itten, Klee & Kandinsky, & apprenticed in the print workshop to Lyonel Feininger Wikip

Career: He was an infantry officer during the war.  At the Bauhaus he developed an apparatus that projected & diffused coloured light to a musical accompaniment, & remained there until its closure in 1925.   Subsequently he taught at various places including the Bauhochschule University of Craft & Architecture in Dessau till Paul Schlze-Naumberg, an advocate of Nazi architecture, dismissed most of the staff.  Ultimately, he left Germany for Britain; had charge of a carpentry workshop, which was part of a Quaker training scheme for unemployed miners; returned to Germany, where his wife remained, to finalise his papers; was deported to Australia in 1940, & was until 1942.  He taught at Geelong school until 1957 Wikip  

Oeuvre/Characteristics: Bright & happy decorative abstract works in which geometric areas are superimposed on wave-like or stripe backgrounds Webimages

Question: [How is his work to be interpreted?   Was he simply blessed by nature with a happy temperament, does his career represent human resilience, or his abstraction works a form of escapism.   Only in some of his woodcuts such as Desolation, Internment Camp, Hay,1941, does there appear to be any connection between his work & his experience] Wikip, Webimages.

– HITCHENS,  Ivon, 1893-1979, England:

Background: Born London & his father, Alfred, was a painter OxDicMod

Training: At the St John’s Wood School of Art, 1911-12; & intermittently at the RA Schools, 1912-19 OxDicMod

Influences: Braque (linear fracturing/spatial ambiguities) L&L, Spalding1986 p68; Clive Bell’s Art became his bible; England countryside L&L, Harris pp 20, 22

Career: He was a founder & continuing member of the progressive 7+5 Society; exhibited with the Objective Abstractionists, 1934; & after his studio was bombed settled near Petworth, 1940 OxDicMod

Oeuvre: Mainly landscapes; also flower & figure subjects, mainly nudes, & several large murals OxDicMod

Phases/Characteristics: During the mid-1930s he experimented with pure abstraction  but by 1938 he appeared to have embarked on a return to nature [perhaps influenced by Geoffrey Grigson’s warning that abstraction was leading nowhere].  His work it is claimed now highly distinctive & semi-abstract with broad, fluid areas of lush colour evoking but not representing the English countryside; & that his work then altered little except that his palette changed from naturalistic browns & greens to vivid yellows & purples etc Harris p22, Spalding 1986 p69, OxDicMod.  However, when his work is examined, it appears to range from broadly painted more or less realistic scenes in soft colours with an emphasis on pale green  grey as in Spring Woodland (Manchester Art Gallery) & Damp Autumn, 1941  (Tate Gallery) to works in bright colour as in Boy in Bed, also 1941 (Tate Gallery) & Red Centre, 1972 (Pliant House, Chichester) which is virtually abstract (images at ArtUK)

Status: It is said that his poetic attachment to the English countryside places him in the English Romantic landscape tradition L&L

Grouping: He belonged to the London Group for which See Section 8 exhibiting with Ben Nicholson, Barbara Hepworth, Henry Moore, etc, during the 1930s Grove14 p590

Personal: He was reserved & sombre; & wary of participation, preferring to watch from a distance Harris p22

Progeny: His son John, born 1930, is a painter mainly of landscapes & flower pieces OxDicMod

 -William HOARE, c1707-92, Mary’s father, England; British Golden Age:

Background: He was born at Eye, Suffolk Grove14 p598
Training: In London under Guiseppi Grisoni, & then after Grisoni’s return to Italy under Francesco Imperial in Rome Grove14 p598
Influences: The pastelist Rosalba Carriera Grove14 p598
Career: He was in Italy during 1728-37;  returned to London; failed to establish himself; & settled in Bath, an expanding spa town, 1739; was closely involved with the running of the Royal Mineral Water Hospital in Bath from 1742; made another abortive attempt to settle in London, 1752; was a founding member of the RA, 1769; but ceased exhibiting in 1779 L&L, Waterhouse1953 p211, Grove14 p598,
Oeuvre: Portraits in oil & pastel; & also prints Vaughan 2002 p76, L&L, Grove14 p598
Characteristics: His portraits are mostly head & shoulders or half-length but include some standing figures.  They include a turbaned figure, a woman at her toilet & some striking close up works as in Girl wearing a White Hat, c1765  (V&A).  He was clearly a highly accomplished oil painter & also a   delicate etcher webimages, Grove14 p599
Circle/Protegees: He & Gainsborough were on excellent terms; & he gave encouragement to Alexander Cozens, Ozias Humphry & Thomas Lawrence Vaughan2002 p76
Patronage: The Pitt, Pelham & Grenville families & local landed families through his hospital activities Waterhouse1953 p211
Status: He was the leading Bath portraitist till Gainsborough & his practice continued to flourish after the latter’s arrival L&L, Vaughan2002 p76
Daughter: Mary, c1753-1820, was a pastelist L&L

-HOBBEMA, Meyndert, 1638-1709, Netherlands=Amsterdam; Northern Realism:

Background: He was born at Amsterdam the son of a carpenter but entered an orphanage in 1653 Grove14 p600.

Training: In the studio of Jacob Van Ruisdael from around 1655 Grove14 p600.

Influences: Initially Cornelis Vroom & Solomon Van Ruysdael but around 1662 Ruisdael’s influence became marked Grove14 p600

Career: In 1668 he married & became a wine gauger with Amsterdam’s customs & excise in & thereafter his output greatly declined & not all his later work is first rate.  However, he produced his [as in] masterpiece Avenue of Trees at Middleharnis, 1689 (NG) which differs from similar works by Cuyp &  Jan Van Kessel because of the dramatic, eye etching manner in which the tall, slender well-spaced trees with their plumelike foliage recede into the distance in contrast to the flat countryside.  He was buried in a pauper’s grave Grove14 p602, wikip, Haak p467

Oeuvre: Landscapes, & rare townscapes as in the marvellously vivid View of the Haarlem Lock & the Herring-packers’ Tower, Amsterdam (NG) Grove14 p601

Characteristics/Phases: His work was sometimes very like Ruisdael’s but its range was more limited & he repeatedly painted a few favourite subjects, especially water-mills & trees around a pool.  The tonality & mood of his paintings was lighter than that of Ruisdael, & Hobbema’s work lacked his melancholic brooding, mysterious quality.  During 1663-8 his paintings were larger & more ambitious with greater spatial clarity often employing a double vanishing point together with a more fluid touch & heightened colour as in Wooded Landscape: The Path on the Dyke, 1663 (NG of Ireland, Dublin), the figures being painted by Adrian Van Velde, a frequent collaborator OxDicArt, L&L, Grove24 pp 600-01

Legacy: His work influenced Gainsborough’s early landscapes & John Crome OxDicArt, Grove24 p603

Reception & Repute: His work seems to have been overlooked by his contemporaries & it often fetched lowish prices & it was not until the mid-19^th century that he was rescued from obscurity & a taste for his work developed especially in England, with the Marquess of Hertford paying a record price for the [as in] Water-mill (Wallace Collection, London).   Nevertheless his work is sometimes still judged to be somewhat pedestrian, & much less imaginative than Ruisdael’s Fuchs p136

*HOCKNEY, David, 1937-, England:

*HODGES, William, 1744-97,  England; Romantic Sublime:

Background:  He was born in London Grove14 p610

Training: William Shipley’s Academy in the Strand, & then Richard Wilson’s apprentice, 1758-65 L&L

Career: He visited Switzerland & Germany, 1771; was the official artist on Cook’s second voyage to the South Pacific, 1772-5; back in London he worked up his drawings into paintings for the Admiralty & exhibited at the RA.   Between 1779 & & 1784 he was in India where he worked for Warren Hastings, the Governor of Bengal; became an RA, 1786; & visited St Petersburg, 1790.  In 1795 the Prince of Wales objected to the political implications of two landscapes & Hodges retired to Devon Grove14 pp 610-11, L&L, Brigstocke

Oeuvre: Landscapes in oils, wash drawings & acquaints Grove14 pp610

Verdict: He was Wilson’s most accomplished imitator.   Hodges skilfully adapted Wilson’s methods so that his exotic scenes appear truthful as in A View Taken in the Bay of Otaheite Peha, 1776 (NT, Anglesey Abbey).   Here the landscape is a veritable Garden of Eden with a nude Eve-like native woman L&L, R&J p14

Innovation: His travel paintings, like the work of Thomas Jones, anticipates 19^th century naturalism & plein air Grove4 p611

Reception & Repute: Many contemporary critics considered his more innovative South Sea  paintings unfinished or bizarre Grove4 p611.  During the period when Victorian & previous painting was being re-evaluated his work was identified as extending the boundaries of orderly landscape that had been set by Claude & Wilson R&J pp14-5.   However, of late his work has been viewed as colonialism.  The lush & peaceful [as in] vista in Tomb & Distant Views of the Raajmahal Hills, 1782 (Tate Gallery), & the creation of the tomb during the peaceful era of the Emperor Akbar “allows it [the painting] to function as imperial propaganda” Dohmen pp 42-3

Collections: National Maritime Museum, Greenwich

[Insert]  Mir y Trinxet.   See Trinxet

Ditto , Agostino  See Angelo Colonna

Ditto  Modena, Barnaba da.   See Da Modena, Barnaba

Ditto  Modena, Tomasso.  See Da Modena, Tomasso

 **HODGKIN, Sir Howard, 1932-, England

Background: Born London OxDicMod
Training: At Camberwell School of Art, 1950-54; & Bath Academy of Art, 1950-54 OxDicMod
Influences: Initially Matisse & the Intimism of Bonnard & Vuillard L&L
Career: He taught at the Bath Academy, 1956-66, & then at the Chelsea School of Art, 1966-72.   He travelled widely making several visits to India.   He has been a trustee of the National Gallery & Tate; & received the Turner Prize in 1985 OxDicMod
Oeuvre: Paintings & prints L&L
Technique: He paints very slowly making numerous adjustments to forms & colours L&L
Phases: His paintings until about 1975 feel close to Pop Art, being more or less flat & bright in colour & pattern.  Many feel humorous or epigrammatic L&L
Characteristics: His paintings, most of which are quite small, sometimes look abstract but are based on specific events, usually encounters between people.   His preference for flat colours & increasingly for decorative borders reflects his admiration for Indian miniatures OxDicMod, L&L
Aim: Sheer beauty appears to be his primary purpose L&L
Verdict: According to Sewell he is “a painter of pretty post-Omega tea trays”, but he has a reputation as an outstanding colourist in contemporary art OxDicMod
Collections: The Tate

..HODGKINS, Frances, 1869-1947, England (New Zealand):

Background: She was born in Dunedin Shone1977 p219.   Her father was a barrister & amateur artist who taught her watercolour painting OxDicMod

Training: At the Dunedin Art School, 1895-8 Shone1977 p219.

Influences: Matisse & Derain Ox20Art.

Career: She first visited Europe in 1901 & travelled in France, Italy & North Africa but visited New Zealand during 1904-6 & 1912-3.    During 1901-3 & 1906 she went on the painting trips in France & Holland organised by Norman Garstin.  She then settled in England & between 1914 & 1919 she was mainly in Cornwall.   During 1920-6 she lived in Manchester, designing for the Calico Printers ‘Association.   Between 1927 & 1934 she was based in London where an exhibition at the Claridge Gallery in 1928 brought her instant success.   She became prominent in the avant-garde &, during 1929-34, belonged to the 7+5 society but resigned  Shone1977 p219, OxDicMod, Harrison p196, Ox20Art, Pryke p115, 131,

Oeuvre: Mainly landscapes & still-life Ox20Art.

Phases: Her paintings prior to the Great War were in a freely executed realist style, quite unlike he later work BDE  pp 97, 103, Shone1977 Pl 94, 96.    She began painting in oils in 1915 Ox20Art

Characteristics: Her mature style was highly individual combining unusually resonant colours with an apparently orchestration of design Ox20Art

Verdict: Her last works are some of the most poetic in the English landscape tradition Shone1977 pp 23-4.

Friends: Norman Garstin & Dorothy Richmond Pryke pp 118.

..HODGSON, John, 1831-1895, England; Academic Painting from 1845:

Background: He was born in London WoodDic
Training: At the RA Schools from 1855 M&M p51.
Career: He spent his early career Russia where his father was a merchant, entered his father’s office but returned to England in 1853.   During 1856-93 he exhibited at the RA, settled in St John’s Wood in 1857, visited North Africa in 1868, became an RA in 1879, & its Librarian in 1882 M&M p51, WoodDic.
Oeuvre/Phases: Initially he painted modern & often social realist subjects, tuned to historical works depicting 15^th & 16^th century events, & then concentrated on paintings of North African life.  He also painted landscapes M&M pp 51-3, WoodDic
Characteristics/Verdict:  His historical works are in restrained colours & crowded with figures, whereas his North African paintings are brilliant & relaxed M&M pp 51-3.
Personal: He was very mild & kind hearted & his home & studio became the centre for the St John’s Wood Clique who met there every Saturday evening in winter for cards & Russian delicacies M&M p51.
Grouping: The St John’s Wood Clique M&M p51

*HODLER, Ferdinand, 1853-1918, Switzerland; Symbolism, etc.

Background: He was born in Bern, the son of a carpenter & the stepson of a house-painter L&L.   His childhood was marked by poverty, illness & misunderstanding  Hamilton1967 p77

Training: Ferdinand Sommer in Thun 1867-70; & Barthelemy Menn at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts, Geneva, who was a gifted follower & friend of Corot & the Barbizon masters, 1873-6  Norman1977, Hamilton1967 p77

Influences: Holbein, & late medieval painting with its simplified but three-dimensional forms against flat backgrounds; Titian, Poussin & Claude.  Also, Spanish landscape, Corot, Courbet & Puvis de Chavannes; & later the Impressionists Hamilton 1967 p77, Norman1977, Grov4 p614, Lucie-S1972 p162

Career/Phases: In 1878 he made a trip to Madrid.  Initially he painted lake & mountain views for the tourist trade & his early landscapes were flooded with light.   During 1875-90 his leading works were idealised representations of artisans as in The Shoemaker, 1878 (Kunsthaus, Zurich).  From 1871 he lived in Geneva.   In 1890 he painted [his as in] Night, with its sinister black draped form & began his Symbolist phase.  In 1891 he made a trip to  Paris where he was drawn to the Rosicrucian’s, exhibited at the Salon de la Rose Croix, 1892; & turned increasingly to monumental figurative compositions.  From about 1898 he painted landscapes of an Impressionist type Grove14 p614, Norman1977, Wikip, GibsonM p120, Hamilton1967 pp 77-78.  Latterly he painted deathbed scenes of  his lovers Augustine Dupin, 1909 (Kunstmuseum Bern) & the [as in] Dead Valentine Gode-Darel, 1915 (Kunstmuseum, Solothurn) Cloe Rossetti: Ferdinand Hodler View to Infinity on web, Grove 14 p615,   

Oeuvre: Symbolist & allegorical works, landscapes, tree portraits, artisans & farmers, nudes, murals, portraits & the occasional still-life, etc, etc webimages, Grove14 p614

Aim: He said presumably referring to his genre works that it was to place truth above beauty Grove14 p614

Beliefs: He equated blue, the colour of the sky & sea, with transcendence.  There was also what he termed parallelism which was his belief that the repetition of similar forms reinforces the all-over unity of a painting Cloe Rossetti: Ferdinan Hodler View to Infinity on web GibsonM p233

Characteristics: His style was bold & simplified.  The landscapes are flooded with light.   On the other hand, his Surrealist work featured wearyingly empty surfaces, his huge canvasses being filled with only a few, separated & posed figures, producing paintings with  little incident in which the women if clothed are dressed in blue, & using somewhat crude brushwork, as in his obtrusive View into Infinity, 1916, (Kunstmuseum, Basel).  However, he painted creditable portraits & late landscapes etc Lucie-S p162, Hamilton 1977 p78, Grove14 p614, GibsonM pp 120-23, L&L.  Another quite distinct aspect of his work was its erotic element as in Spring in which a young woman in blue worships a naked young man, 1903 (Museum Folkwang, Essen) Grove 14 pp 614-15, webimage     

Status: He was  a leading Swiss 19^th century painter Norman1977

Reception: Until about 1910 his reputation in Switzerland was not high although his Symbolist work was admired in France, Germany & Austria L&L

Grouping: Initially his work was naturalistic, & then Symbolist L&L

Collections: Kunstmuseum, Bern L&L

..HOCKERT/HOECKERT, Johann, 1826-66, Sweden; National Romanticism & Rural Naturalism:

Background: Born in Jonkoping into a wealthy home Norman1977, Grove14 p607
Training: At the Art Academy, Stockholm, 1844-45; & Akademie in Munich until 1849 Grove14 p607
Influences: Delaroche’s historical works, Delacroix’s rich palette, & Couture’s silvery tones Norman1977, Grove14 p607
Training: He studied with Boklund in Munich and with Knaus in Paris from 1851 Norman1977
Career: He toured Lapland, visiting the lake at Hornavan in a region previously unexplored by artists, 1850; lived in Paris, 1851-57; had his first success at the Salon, Queen Christina Orders the Assassination of Monaldeschi, 1853 (Goteborg Museum of Art)  This gained him a two-year pension from the King of Sweden; painted the big Service in the Chapel of Lovmokk in Lapland, 1855 (Norrkoping Museum of Art), working from sketches, which was a great success; also painted Parisian genre in refined colour; returned to Stockholm 1867; toured in Dalecarlian where he found inspiration for another series of works depicting the lives of the common people; visited Italy, Spain, North Africa & London; became professor at the academy in Stockholm Norman1977
Oeuvre: Genre and historical works; also, portraits Norman1977, Grove13 p607
Speciality: His works depicting the lives of the common people as in his pleasing, colourful, naturalistic Rattvikat the Fireside, 1860 (Gothenburg Museum of Art)
Innovation/Influence:  His scenes of peasant and Lapp life had a great influence on his Swedish contemporaries, as did his Romantic historical works Norman1977
Status: He was one of the greatest colourists in Swedish 19^th century painting Grove14 p607
Legacy: He paved the way for the much freer & more lively Swedish painting of the 1870s Grove14 p607

*HOEFNAGEL, Georg/Jovis, 1542-1600, Belgium:

..HOERLE, Heinrich, Germany:

Background: Born in Cologne Hayward1979 p126
Training: At the Cologne School of Arts & Crafts but he was mostly self-taught Wikip
Influences: Tatlin, El Lissitzky, Leger & De Stijl Wikip
Career: After war service, he met & worked with Franz Seiwert on the journal Ventilator, with his wife became active in Cologne Dada, & in 1920 co-founded the short lived artist’s group Stupid with Raderscheidt & Seiwert  Hayward1979 p127, Wikip
Characteristics: His figures are in stiff & strict profile or frontal poses & they are mostly reduced to severely geometric shapes Hayward1979 p127, Wikip
Grouping: He did really belong to Neue Sachlichkeit Hayward1979 p127

-HOFER, Carl, 1878-1956, Germany:

Background: Born Karlsruhe OxDicMod

Training: At the Karlsruhe Academy under Thomas, 1896-1901 OxDicMod

Influences: Cezanne OxDicMod

Career: With support from a rich Swiss patron he spent 1903-8 in Rome.   From 1908 to 1913 he lived in Paris with visits to India in 1909 & 1911.   After three years in an internment camp, he returned to Berlin in 1918 & became a teacher at the Hochschule fur Bildende Kunste.   He achieved considerable success but he was sacked in 1933 & then reinstated after the war OxDicMod

Oeuvre: This included portraits & landscapes OxDicMod

Phases/Characteristics: Initially he painted in an idealised classical style, after India he for a time incorporated swooning lyrical figures & after internment figures with hesitant gestures which seem affected by their confinement.   Apart from 1930-1 when he experimented with abstraction, he concentrated on a few obsessively recurrent images, especially brooding figures, which reflect a dark & disillusioned vision of the world.   His design was simple & strong with distinctive cool & chalky colours OxDicMod

Beliefs: “One must have the courage to be unmodern” OxDicMod

*Hans HOFMANN/SONDERBORG, 1880-1966, Germany/USA:

Background: Born Weissenburg, Bavaria OxDicMod

Training: Art schools in Munich OxDicMod

Career: He was brought up in Munich.   From 1904 to 1914 he lived in Paris & during 1915-1932 he ran an art school in Munich.   He visited America in 1930 & 1931, emigrated there in 1932.   In 1934 he founded the Hans Hoffmann School of Fine Arts in New York & continued teaching there until 1958.   He then concentrated on his own painting OxDicMod

Phases: He experimented with many styles.   His later works feature rectangular blocks of fairly solid colour against a more broken background OxDicMod

Innovations: The dribbling & pouring of paint OxDicMod

Beliefs: Depth is not created by Renaissance perspective but by “the creation of forces in the sense of push & pull”OxDicMod

Circle: In Paris he knew many of the leading Fauvistrs, Cubists & Orphists OxDicMod

Influence: It was great on the smallish number of American artists who became abstractionists during the 1930s.   Greenberg said he was probably the most important art teacher of his time OxDicMod

*Ludwig von HOFMANN, 1861-1945, Germany:

Background: Born in Darmstadt, his father was the Prussian statesman Karl von Hofmann who served as Minister-president of the Grand Duchy of Hesse from 1872-1876 and briefly Trade Minister in cabinet of Otto von Bismarck  RA1900 p391 Wikip

Training: At the Dresden Academy under his uncle Heinrich, in Munich & at the Academie Julian, 1889 L&L, Gibson p233

Influences: Puvis de Chavannes, Maurice Denis; Marees & Alber Besnard L&L, Gibson p233, RA1900 p391

Career: He studied law in Bonn from 1880 to 1883 at the request of his parents.   In 1890 he moved to Berlin  & helped found the progressive Association of the Eleven in 1892 RA1900 p391.   During 1894-1900 he was in Rome & in 1906 he visited Greece with the writer Gerhart Hauptman L&L.  In 1898 he helped found the Berlin Secession RA1900 p391.   Between 1903 & 1908 he taught at the  Weimar Saxon School of Fine Art.   In 1906 he settled in Dresden Gibson p233.   He helped found the German Artists’ League in 1903 RA1900 p391

Oeuvre: Paintings, murals, lithographs, illustrations L&L

Phases: His style became increasingly ornamental Gibson p233

Characteristics: Imaginary & usually lyrical subjects, often with nude or semi-nude figures amid timeless nature, as in Daydream, 1898 (Alte Nationalgalerie, Berlin).   His colour was vivid L&L

Circle: Liberman & others who were opposed to the Academy & to Wilhelm II RA1900 p391

Grouping:  He was a kind of German Post-Expressionist L&L

Repute: By 1945 he was largely forgotten RA1900 p391

Family: He married in 1899 and his wife saved his paintings from Russians after his death in 1945. Wikip

..Paul HOGARTH, 1917-2001, England; 18th Century Realism Movement

Background: He was born in Kendall & was a descendant of William Wikip
Training: Manchester School of Art, 1934-6; St Martin’s School of Art, & under James Boswell Wikip
Influences: Frederick Antal M&R p16
Career: The family moved to Manchester when he was tiny.   He drove ambulances in the Spanish Civil War, went to in 1947 went to Yugoslavia to record the building of the Youth Railway, & in 1948, when editor of the AIA Newsletter, & after press comment on Soviet criticism of its leading composers, opined that press comment was anti-Soviet propaganda & that dictatorship existed in every sphere of cultural activity in Britain.   During 1951-4 he taught at the Central School of Arts & Crafts.   He became an RA in 1984 Wikip, M&R pp 77, 7, F50s p67.
Oeuvre: Watercolours, drawings & illustrations Wikip
Characteristics: His watercolours are largely pleasing, colourful & bold depictions of buildings & structures together with an occasional landscape Webimages
Feature: He produced a sketch Building the Joseph Stalin Palace of Culture & Science, Warsaw, exhibited 1954 M&R p93

***William HOGARTH,1697-1764, England; British Golden Age:

Background: His father was a schoolmaster, an author of textbooks & dictionaries who spent lengthy period in the Fleet prison for debt Bindman p9.  See Golden Age & Grand Manner in Section 9 under Background for the reaction against Italian opera etc.

Context: Hogarth’s art cannot be understood & appreciated if it is simply regarded as the product of an exceptional  talent.  It needs to be seen in the context of early Georgian society.  In particular he was working in an era in which there was both a riotous underclass in London due to the advent of cheap gin & a growing benevolence & sensibility among the literary & wealthy elite See Slavery & Imperialism in Section 7 & British Golden Age & Grand Manner in Section 9

Training: In 1713 he was apprenticed to Ellis Gamble who was an engraver of arms on silver plate; & he enrolled at the academy in St Martin’s Lane founded by John Vandebank & Louis Cheron,   where in his spare time he first studied life drawing.  After its closure he joined the free academy run by James Thornhill, 1724.   Nevertheless it appears that as a painter he was largely self-taught Grove14 pp 637, 641, Bindman p29

Influences: The contemporary fashion for plate with excessive ornamentation encouraged Hogarth to include too many figures & objects in his works.  He was fired by Thornhill’s works at St Paul’s & Greenwich & devoured anything that France & Italy offered, usually through prints.  Gay’s Beggar’s Opera  influenced the Harlot’s Progress Waterhouse1953 pp 164, 168, Goodall pp 111-2.  Other sources were Dutch genre painting of the Golden Age which mock their subjects by exaggerating negative features in what are known as drolls; the commedia dell’arte works of Claude Gillot; Van Dyck’s children; & probably the notoriously corrupt Oxford election of 1754 Grove14 pp 640-41, Wikip

Career: By 1720 he had established his own business & during the latter part of the decade had begun to make his name with his Conversations  & a scene from the Beggar’s Opera Brigstocke, OxDicArt.  He married Thornhill’s daughter with whom he eloped, without it appears any long-standing rupture, 1729; signed a petition to Parliament, together with George Vertue & others, which resulted in the Engravers’ Copyright Act which from 1735 afforded protection against unauthorised copies, & was followed by an enormous development of printmaking.  He established a drawing academy in St Martin’s Lane, 1735 Grove pp 637-38, Bindman pp 37-38.  In 1739 he became a foundation Governor of the Foundling Hospital, 1739, where from 1745 he promoted the presentation of works by living artists; was appointed Sergeant Painter to the King, 1757, & then earned money for supervising decorative works.  However it was the sale of engravings that provided fame and financial security Burke p160, Grove14 p640, Vaughan1999 p9.  He was intensely ambitious & quarrelsome, died embittered at what he regarded as his lack of success.   His last years were darkened by political controversy & he opposed younger artists’ agitation for a British Academy Waterhouse 1953 p168, L&L.  He was rabidly xenophobic & thought that foreign painters were to be despised, & in 1741 signed himself “Anglus pinxt” OxDicArt Waterhouse1953 pp 164, 168

Oeuvre: His subject matter included social & political satire, Conversation Pieces; family groups, the Down & Out, erotic works & prostitution, literary & operatic subject matter, current history paintings, religious works & portraits ranging from [as in ] The Shrimp Girl, c1743(NG), & [his as in] Hogarth’ Servants, 1750 (Tate Gallery) to the upper classes as in the Marquess of Hartington, 1741 (Yale Centre for British Art).  His works consisted of paintings in oils, & of engravings webimages, Bindman  illustrations

Characteristics/Phases: After 1737 Hogarth turned to larger-scale portraits,  & also developed a bravura technique derived from the masters of the French Baroque as in the Shrimp Girl & Servant works.  His  masterpiece is the full-length is [the as in] Captain Thomas Coram, 1740 (Foundling Museum) Grove14 p641   

Development: By 1720 he was an independent engraver producing billheads & book illustrations OxDicArt.  During 1729-33 he produced Conversations & other small single figure pictures, with a few up to 1738.  However they were insufficiently lucrative & after multi-figure Conversations & small scale stage groups, he began around 1731 painting his great narrative series Waterhouse1953 pp 170-1.  These he described as “modern moral subjects…similar to representations on the stage” treating the subject “as a dramatic writer; my picture is my stage, & men & women my players” Sitwell p27.  The first set of six paintings was A Harlot’s Progress, which were then  engraved & published in 1732.  They were an enormous success & soon followed by A Rake’s Progress of which the original paintings still exist. 1733-34 (Sir John Soan’s Museum, London)

Engravings: His pictures were sometimes painted for the purpose of producing engravings as in the Rake’s Progress but probably not the better painted Marriage a la Mode Waterhouse1953 pp 173, 176. Although Hogarth was an accomplished engraver he did not have the skill of the best French practitioners.  In 1735 he employed Louis-Gerard Scotin to help with the engraving of A Rake’s Progress & thereafter he appears to have used French engravers whenever he wanted to appeal to a more sophisticated  audience.  On the other hand when he produced popular prints as in the Industry & Idleness series the engravings were made directly from preliminary drawings Grove14 p642.   In    1735-6 with money from engravings of the Rake’s Progress (1735) he painted the unsolicited huge (St Bartholomew Hospital  History paintings but this did not react in any commissions Waterhouse1953 p173.   During the late 1730s he radically revised his style with greater modelling of plastic forms probably influenced by his friend Roubilac & under French influences BurkeJ pp 164-5.   He turned to painting life-sized portraits starting with the gratuitous Captain Coram, 1740, & continuing with high activity until 1745 Waterhouse1953 pp 173-4.  Specialities were the portrayal of actors Antal1962 p58.  A feature of his portraiture was the depiction of the smiling, amiable face, & this excludes the designing smile Bindman Illustrations 106, 107, 111, 113, 120, 155.  During 1743-45 he worked on the Marriage a la Mode series; & in 1754 painted his last narrative series, An Election Waterhouse1953 pp 176, 178

Characteristics/Technique: Following Kneller he painted in a lighter more pleasurable French style instead of the unpleasing & heavier one, in the tradition of Riley & Richardson who were followed by Hudson & Knapton.    He painted wet on wet.  He relied on his  prodigious visual memory & largely eschewed drawing.   In this he was assisted by his reduction of objects to an easily memorable system of lines Waterhouse1953 pp 165, 168, Vaughen 2002  p28, Bindman pp 30-31.  Unlike almost all his contemporaries he did not use drapery painters & his work was of a realist nature like that of  Chardin & Troost, & he has been classed as a Rococo painter  S-T p11,  NCMH7 p79; BurkeJ p106             

Firsts & Lasts: He was the first English painter who was not largely reliant on patronage & who painted scenes from plays, though this had been anticipated in engravings, sporadically in Netherlands & more clearly by Gillot BurkeJ pp 139-60, Antal1962 p59.  His dual portrait Garrick & his Wife, 1757, has been seen as the swan song of paintings which show husbands & wives in a companionate marriage Dijkstra p9, See also Couples: Dancing, Kissing, Embracing & Companionatein in Section 3, & Women Early & Mid-Victorian/The Angel in the House in Section 7.  

Beliefs:  He had a passionate interest in teaching of art but was opposed to formal Academies, which ultimately isolated him from fellow artists, believing they discouraged originality & that there are only half a dozen artists of real merit in any society with an unbridgeable gap between middling & great artists Bindman p149

Social Criticism: Hogarth’s later work is full of satirical attack on the numerous social evils with which he was concerned.   These included false religion as represented by both the Methodists & the established church.  The former are lampooned for their religious fervour & emotionalism in his print Enthusiasm Delineated.   Here members of the delirious congregation try, in cannibal fashion, to eat statues of Christ, etc.   The cold religion of the established religion is no better, as shown in The Four Times of Day – Morning, where an old but elegant spinster, on her way to Church, wholly disregards an underclass grouping which includes prostitutes but is fronted by a pathetic black woman begging for alms Dabydeen.   Another social evil is class division.   This is illustrated in Noon in which an ostentatious group of wealthy citizens emerging from church do not even glance at a group of brutish lower-class individuals at a tavern.   The two nations are pointedly separated by a diagonal gutter.   It has been argued that the lower orders at least display a certain vigour, being preoccupied with food & sex Dabydeen pp 58-64, 81, 84, 121.    However, the lumpen proletarians in Gin Lane are without redeeming feature.   Moreover here the commercial class, as represented by distillers, pawnbrokers & undertakers, profit from the profligacy of the dregs at the bottom of society Dabydeen pp 62-4.   The social elite are depicted as no better, & if anything worse.    The pretentions of the aristocracy, who ape French culture, are ridiculed in Taste in High Life.   The aristocrats are disfigured & are grotesquely admiring a saucer & teacup, while the pictures indicate their connection with France Dabydeen p128.   In Marriage a la Mode attacks the arranged marriage which leads progressively form adultery to venereal disease & suicide.  Plate 1 of the Four Stages of Cruelty is an attack on those who are guilty of the inhuman treatment of animals   The anti-hero, Tom Nero, is shoving an arrow, which symbolises savagery, down a dog’s anus Dabydeen pp 65-7.   A notable feature of Hogarth’s critique is the way in which human beings are shown as being no better than animals.  In Gin Lane a man & dog are shown gnawing the same bone, while in The Cockpit a dog also watches the cruel sport Dabydeen pp 54, 72

A crucial element in Hogarth’s social criticism is the presence of outsiders who provide explicit or implicit comment on & criticism of the events that are taking place.   A Mohammedan looks through the window of the Methodist tabernacle & chuckles.   Even more striking is the way in which blacks, a supposedly uncivilised race, are frequently introduced Dabydeen pp 130-1.  In Plate 8 of Industry & Idleness  there is a prominent & gently smiling black waiter serving at an extravagant Guildhall feast from which the poor, literally cap in hand, are being barred Dabydeen p58.  In Taste in High Life a black boy has been transformed by his aristocratic mistress from his natural state into an artificial & erotic object Dabydeen pp 79, 128.

Politics: Hogarth was strongly anti-Jacobite & attacked them in many works.   He distrusted all politicians Antal1962 pp 2, 3

Circle: In 1734 Hogarth quarrelled with Kent & Burlington about the right to depict Kent’s decorations, & having already attacked Burlington’s circle in his engravings.   He was an intimate friend of leading theatre managers including Rich, Fielding, Garrick & was on good terms with many famous actors.   There was a twice weekly club at Slaughter’s Coffee House which included the painters Richardson, Hudson, Lambert & Hayman, together with Gravelot, Roubillac, Handel & Folkes.  The painters were able to display their work by decorating the Vauxhall pleasure gardens under the management of Hogarth’s friend, Jonathan Tyers Antal1962 pp 39, 58, 223, Grove14 p638 

Verdict: He has been regarded as probably Britain’s most innovative & interesting artist L&L. Nevertheless, there have been critics.  Roger Fry says he was fundamentally a Philistine who appealed to the uncultured by means of crude illustration, though even he concedes Hogarth was capable of pure painting of a delicate, silvery & fugitive nature, & a  although not a great colourist used  tender harmonies of warm greens, browns, dull yellow & faded rose Fry1934 pp 35-6

Influence & Legacy: He “stands first amongst those pioneers who humanised the English portrait” BurkeJ p168.   His Captain Coram was the first work to be in the form of state portrait but also an affectionate & smiling character study, no longer a type with individual features but an individual in his own right Waterhouse1953 p174.   He freed British art from domination by foreign artists OxDicArt. From 1735 he ran the new St Martin’s Lane Academy which was the RA’s main forerunner; established the first permanent gallery of English art at the Foundling Hospital OxDicArt, L&L.   Hogarth’s late paintings of happenings paved the way for fashionable, neo-Baroque history paintings, & his 1729 Goals Committee of the  House of the Commons (NPG), which examined conditions in Fleet Prison, led to the current history paintings by West & Copley.  Later Abraham Solomon & Frith employed Hogarth’s serial format, & the latter painted two series of paintings inspired by Hogarth’s Rake’s Progress & Road to Ruin, & he & Edward Ward took up Hogarth’s strong moral stance against gambling & debauchery.  Ford Madox Brown was also indebted to Hogarth’s modern moral pictures  Antal1962 pp 91, 179,  Treuherz1992 pp 25-26, 87, 112.     

Followers: John Collet; Gillray; Rowlandson; & Cruikshank who was Hogarth’s last direct descendent Antal1962 pp 183-4, 191

Repute: Enthusiasm for Hogath gathered strength towards the end of the Napoleonic War especially among the Liberal avant-garde: Lamb, Hazlitt & Landor.   Hogarth was at the height of his reputation during the early Victorian period being regarded as the founder of the British School of painting Antal1962 p185.  During the 1930s his work was re-evaluated by left-wing & Communist intellectuals associated with the Artists International Association & in particular Frederick Antal & Francis Klingender.  Dissatisfied with the apolitical modernism & abstraction which they condemned as formalism, & appalled at the rise of fascism, they wanted to refocus painting on current social problems & turned to Hogarth for inspiration, seeing him as a forefather in Britain of committed & relevant art L&R p15, See Formalism in Section 5 & Artists International Association, Section 8

Collections: NG for the Marriage-a-la Mode series, & Sir John Soan’s Museum, London, for A Rake’s Progress & the Humours of an Election series 

..HOGUE, Alexandre, 1898-1994, USA:

Background: Born Missouri Barter p49

Influences: His father was a clergyman & mother, from whom he learned about the sanctity of the earth & the Dust Bowl, had a great impact on his work Barter p49, Eikip

Training: A year at the Minneapolis College of Art & Design Wikip

Career: He moved to Dallas & in 1921 to New York where he worked for advertising firms, but went back to Texas in the summer to sketch, & then in 1925 went there to paint.  In 1931 he began teaching at Texas State College for Women.  He headed the  art departments at Hockaday Junior College from 1936, & the University of Tulsa, 1945-63 Wikip,  Barter p49.  

Beliefs: That people were largely to blame for the Dust Bowl because of their maltreatment of nature Wikip

Oeuvre: Landscapes webimages  

Characteristics: His works range from cultivated land to remote mountainous areas.  In some cases, the scene is verdant or it is naturally dry & of a semi-desert type, as in Across the Valley, Taos, 1929.  However, in those for which he is celebrated he depicts the Dust Bowl & the rape of the earth as in erosion 2 – Mother Earth Laid Bare, 1936 (Philbrook Museum of Art Tulsa, Oklahoma) & Drought Survivors, 1936 (Musee National D’Art Moderne, Paris).  In composition, the handling of paint & use of colour his paintings are bold, forceful & confident.   Objects are often placed in the foreground in his drought paintings leaving the background as a decollate, largely empty space Wikip, webimages

Grouping: Occasionally he is called a Regionist but he never referred to himself as one.  He belonged to a group of Texas Regionalists called The Dallas Nine but lacked their feeling of Texan identity Wikip, Barter p49

Hoshanoth.   See Master of the Vyssi Brod

Hohenforth.   See Master of the Vyssi Brod

..HOIN, Claude, 1750-1817, France:

Background: Born Dijon the son of a prominent doctor Wakefield p74m Grove14 p657
Training: Under the architect Claude-Francois Devosage II in Dijon, & then Jean-Baptiste Greuze in Paris from around 1772 who was a formative influence Grove14 p657, Wakefield p74
Career: He became professor at the Ecole Royal Militaria, 1779, & official painter to the future Louis XVIII; returned to Dijon, 1794, but with trips to Paris, exhibiting at the open Salons of 1801-2; became professor of the Lycée & then director of the Musee des Beaux-Arts, 1811, devoting his later years to its management Grove14 p657
Oeuvre: Simple genre scenes, landscapes, gouaches of gallant & allegorical subjects; & also portraits in oils, chalk & pastels Wakefield p74, Grove14 p657, Wikip
Speciality/Verdict: Drawings of young women & children, & also landscapes, which have a casual & unstudied quality, a refreshing change from many of his more formal works Wakefield p74, Grove14 p657, webimages
Collection: Musee des Beaux-Arts, Dijon   

-Ambrosius HOLBEIN, c1494-after 1519, Hans the elder’s son & Hans the younger’s brother, Germany:

Background: He was born at Augusburg Grove14 p665
Career: In 1517 he was enrolled in the Basle painters’ guild
Oeuvre: Paintings, drawings & woodcut design Grove14 p665

*Hans HOLBEIN, the Elder who was the father of Hans the Younger & Ambrosius, c1463-1534, Germany:

Background: He was born at Augusburg Wikip
Influences: Rogier van der Weyden Grove14 p663
Career: In 1493 he bought a house in Augsburg but he travelled to paint in various places to paint including Frankfurt am Main, 1501; Alsace, 1509-10; & Lucerne, 1517.    Around 1516 he left Augsburg where he was declared a tax defaulter.   He went to Isenheim & then Basel Grove14 pp 663-4, Wikip
Oeuvre: Religious works & a few portraits Grove14 pp 663-4
Characteristics: His religious works have warm & glowing colour,  display his ability to depict facial characteristics, to achieve a clear & symmetrical organisation of the figures, & in his earlier works to indicate spatial recession.   Some but not all of his later works are flatter with figures that are more contorted Grove14 pp 663-4.
Innovation/Grouping: He pioneered the transformation of German art from International Gothic to the Renaissance style Wikip. Grove14 p664
Workshop: It was large Grove14 p663

***Hans HOLBEIN, the Younger, 1497/8-1543, Hans the Elder’s son & the brother of Ambrosius, Switzerland/England (Germany):

Background: He was born at Augsburg. Waterhouse1953 p16

Influences: Mantegna, Leonardo & the Northern  Renaissance Brigstocke, Waterhouse1953 p16

Career: He paid a short visit to North Italy; settled  in Basle, the centre of the Northern humanist movement around Erasmus, 1519; became a moderate Protestant, 1527; visited London & painted portraits of those in touch with the international humanist movement including More, Arch-Bishop Wareham; John & Thomas Godsalve, & Niklaus Kratzer together with the lost Family of Sir Thomas, More, during the spring & summer of 1528; returned to  Basle; & in 1532 came back to England where he remained until his death.  His previous patrons were dead or disgraced & he now painted portraits etc for the merchants in the Hansa Steelyard; portrayed  his first court official, Robert Chesman, 1533;  painted Cromwell around 1534; was placed on the court payroll, 1536; painted Jane Seymour; & his first portrait of Henry VIII, 1537; & then spent 1538-9 abroad painting Henry’s possible wives as in his masterpiece Christina of Denmark, Duchess of Milan, c1538 (NG) with her confident half-smile & quizzically raised right eyebrow Waterhouse1953 pp 16-19; Pope-H p250, Hayes1991 p12, Campbell pp II, 94

Oeuvre: Portraits including miniatures, having learned this technique from Lucas Horenbout who painted several miniatures of Henry VIII.  Also, some early religious works & a few allegorical paintings including An Allegory of the Old & New Testaments, 1533-35 (NG Scotland, Edinburgh).     Grove21 p639

Phases: His English portraits of 1528 have a senatorial dignity comparable with those of Titian but, unlike Titian he employed predominantly linear means.  After his return to England his figures no longer somewhat flat patterns in elaborate clothing with aloof & inscrutable features, but have a more pronounced individuality Waterhouse1953 pp 18-21, etc

Characteristics/Innovation: His portraits display an unrealistic clarity but are unsurpassed for sureness & economy of statement, purity of style & the presentation of character as in Henry VIII with his small eyes & inadequate lips, 1530s  (Museo Nacional Thyssen Bornemiza, Madrid).  The portraits usually have notable blue or green backgrounds of an almost uniform nature but in some the sitter is placed against a green curtain  Wolfflin1915 p197,  Waterhouse1953 p17.   Although he did not introduce the standing full-length portrait which dates back at least to those of Cranach the Elder in  1514, he nevertheless had an innovator role because they were a feature of his work Campbell pp 124-25, webimages

Feature: Although his works may appear to be fully objective & straightforward, they have to be carefully read.  The viewer needs to perceive what the picture is telling us about the social position & interests of the sitter as in his portrait of the Hanseatic merchant Georg Gisze, 1532.   Above all he was able through his unsurpassed control of line & his superb craftsmanship he was able by means of exaggeration & the depiction of  the size & shape bodily features to indicate personality as in Man Aged Thirty Nine (Gemäldegalerie, Berlin, both), & the [as in] portrait of Thomas Cromwell (Frick Collection, New York) depicting the razor sharp gaze & firm grip of a tight lipped man who is plotting & planning Campbell pp12, 14, 30, 34-35, etc

Status/Verdict:  He was one of the most penetrating portraitists who has ever lived Hayes1991 p23 

Legacy: Although Holbein had able assistants they produced little independent work.  However, he helped introduce miniature painting into England Waterhouse1953 pp 22-3, Grove10 p246

Holanda.   See de Holanda

–HOLGUIN, Melchor Peres de, c1660-c1725, Bolivia:

Background: He was born at Cochabamba, Bolivia L&L
Influences: Flemish Mannerist engravings & those of Marten de Vos L&L, Grove14 p677
Career: He was active at Potosi, the largest & most prosperous city in South America L&L, Brigstocke
Oeuvre/Characteristics: His powerful & sumptuous paintings depict religious subjects or festivities connected with the viceregal administration as in the entry into Potosi of the Viceroy Diego Morcillo, 1716, Museo America, Madrid.   The paintings contain expressive details & sometimes Indian costumes & customs Brigstocke, L&L
Phases: His early works depict ascetic saints famed for charitable acts & his later works are larger & have a wider range of colours Grove14 p677
Status/Verdict: He was the outstanding colonial South American painter, although his work has perhaps unfairly been deemed crude by European standards L&L, OxDicArt, webimages
Pupils: Gaspar de Berrio Grove14 p677
Grouping: Hispano-American Baroque Grove14 p677, webimages
Legacy: His work was extremely influential Grove14 p677
Collections: The MET has a notable attributed painting of St Christopher bearing the Christ Child, c1715 web

..HOLL, Frank, 1845-88, England; Victorian Modern Life Movement

Background: His father was an engraver & utopian socialist angry at his low status Gillett p123

Training: At the RA Schools, 1860 WoodDic

Influences: Dutch 17^th century painting, especially Rembrandt WoodDic

Career: He began exhibiting at the RA in 1864, in 1868 had a major success, in 1870 the Queen bought a painting, & in 1882 he became an RA.   In 1869 went to Italy on a travelling prize but quickly returned saying he wanted to portray the somewhat rugged home-life of the English people.   Early on Holl worked for five years at the  Graphic producing black & white illustrations, being recognised by the police due to his frequent walks in the East End in search of subjects.   However in 1881, when Norman Shaw was building him a mansion in Hampstead, he turned to portraiture.   Later he  commissioned Shaw to build an even larger house in Surrey.  He was a workaholic with a guilty conscience.   His death was commonly attributed to overwork WoodDic, Gillett pp 122-5.

Phases: In 1881 he turned from Social Realism to portraiture Gillett p110

Characteristics: His portraits are in strong blacks & browns with dramatic chiaroscuro WoodDic

Status: He was one of the best & most popular Victorian portrait painters.   His sitters included John Bright, Gladstone, Chamberlain & Morgan WoodDic

Grouping: Social Realism etc WoodDic

-HOLLAR, Wenceslaus/Wenzel, 1607-77, Czech:

Background: He was born in Prague, the son of Bohemian yeoman  L&L, Grove14 p682

Training: Matthaus Merian in whose Frankfurt workshop he worked, probably 1631-32 OxDicArt, Grove14 p683

Influences: Dutch landscape prints Grove14 p683

Career: He made important etched views of the environs of Prague in 1626 but left, 1527; went to Germany; travelled through the Netherlands from 1634; met Thomas Howard, Earl of Arundel, connoisseur & collector, accompanied him on his diplomatic mission along the Rhine & Danube to Vienna & then overland to Prague, making drawings, & then went with him to London, 1636; worked for Howard in London; taught the children of Charles I, joined the Royalists; moved to Antwerp 1644; returned to England, 1652; received an appointment by the King, 1668; made a trip to Tangier with the Duke of Arundel, 1669; & died a pauper in London Grove14 pp 682-85, OxDicMod

Oeuvre: Prolific engravings of landscapes & topographical views, also watercolours still-life & fashion/costume plates.   He also produced etchings of ships, muffs, works in the Arundel collection, butterflies, flowers, women of colour, etc OxDicArt; L&L, Grove14 pp 682, 684, webimages

Characteristics: Much of his work is only of workmanlike quality though his observation of nature was passionate & he paid great attention to detail.  His large topographic views are often enhanced by foreground trees & figures Grove14 pp 682-83

Phases: His drawings when travelling with Arundel were his best ever.  He made drawings on the spot & later redrew them with greater regard for composition in pen using brown or & black ink with washes of coloured ink or watercolour, many being subsequently etched along with his preliminary drawings.  His Great Prospect of Prague, 1649 (NG Prague, Kinsky Palace) is arguably his best large city prospects.  After 1636 much of his work was reproductive & of uneven quality.  However, his fashion  plate Four Seasons etchings, 1643 (British Museum) & West Part of Southwark towards Westminster, c1638 (Yale Centre for British Art, New Haven) were distinguished work, & his best etchings were produced in Antwerp Grove14 pp 683-84, & 30 p661

Feature: His views are an invaluable record of the City of London prior to the Great Fire, 1666 OxDicArt

Status: He was a leading 17^th century engraver of topographical views OxDicArt.

Reception: His reputation was well established by the mid-1620s Grove14 p683

* HOMER, Winslow, 1836-1910, USA:

Background: (a) Personal: He was brought up in Cambridge, Massachusetts.  His father was a hardware importer & his mother a gifted amateur watercolourist Grove14 p699.   (b) Social his later work was painted at a time when pessimism was rife & masculinity was being celebrated.   Nature was seen by Kipling & Conrad as a hostile & uncaring force to which hardness & self-reliance were the only valid response Hughes1997 pp 303, 312-4

Training: Between 1855 & 1857 he was apprenticed to a Boston lithographer, after his father had been almost ruined through the California gold rush.  He attended drawing classes in Brooklyn, went to night school at the National Academy of Design, & briefly had lessons in oil painting from the French landscape & genre painter Frederik Rondel NGArtinP p245, Grove14 p699, Kimball p116

Influences: The paintings by Manet with their broad tonal contrasts that he saw in Paris together with the Barbizon School & particularly Millet OxDicArt, Grove14 p699

Career: He began as a freelance illustrator, moved to New York in 1859 & became an illustrator for Harper’s Weekly.   During the Civil War, he went south with the Union Armies, serving as an artist-correspondent for Harper’s  Grove14 p699.   After the War, he began to concentrate on oil painting, & his Prisoners from the Front (The Met) created a sensation at the National Academy of Design in 1866.   During 1866-7 he was in France where he had a studio in Paris & painted in the countryside.   On his return, he worked from the late spring to the autumn in the country, mainly in New England, & spent the winter in New York.   Although his ability was recognised, Homer sold few oils & disliked being an illustrator.   In 1873 he began to seriously paint in watercolour as in & in 1877 joined the American Society of Painters in Watercolours Grove14 p699.     During 1881-2 he lived at Cullercoats, a fishing village & artists’ colony near Tynemouth, devoting himself almost entirely to watercolour.   In 1883 not long after his return he settled at Prout’s Neck, which was a lonely rocky promontory on the coast of Maine.   Here he built a studio on the high shore where he lived alone Grove14 pp 699-700.   However, he spent a good part of the winter in Florida or the Bahamas Kimball p118

Oeuvre/Phases/Development:

(i) His Civil War illustrations mostly show the daily routine of camp life & are marked by realism, firm draftsmanship & an absence of heroics Grove14 p 699, Hughes1997 pp 303-4

(ii) After the War, the [as in] symbolic peace picture, The Veteran in a New Field, 1865 (The MET), was followed by pictures of a distinctly civilian & genre nature as in The Croquet Game, 1866 (Art Institute, Chicago), & children being educated or playing as in The Country School, 1871 (St Louis Art Museum Snap of the Whip, 1872 (Butler Institute of American Art, Youngstown, Ohio)  Hughes1997 pp 304-7. Cikovsky pp 34-46.

(iii) From around the mid-1870s he produced watercolours & oils paintings of sailing & the sea as in the joyous Breezing Up,1876 (National Gallery of Art) Cikovsky pp 56-59

(iv)  His period at Cullercoats was in many ways a turning point for Homer.  Previously in New England his women & children had appeared to have been caught in accidental poses.   They were now replaced by monumental & sculptural ones   His fishermen were massive in their rain slicked oilskins & the women in their shawls were silhouetted against the scudding grey sky as in Four Fishwives, 1881 (Scripps College, Claremont California).   Furthermore, he painted his first works where man is battling with nature & a rescue is taking place as in Wreck of the Iron Crown, 1881 Baltimore Museum of Art) Hughes1997 p310, Cikovsky pp 76-77.   This led to further paintings in which disaster at sea was narrowly avoided, as in The Life Line, 1884  (Philadelphia Museum of Art, or imminent as in The Fog Warning, 1885 (Museum of Fine Arts) Cikovsky pp 86-89

(v) However, some of the most dramatic, menacing & sinister sea paintings that he produced are his late works in which there are no figures as in Eastern Point, 1900 (The Clark Museum, Williamstown, Massachusetts) Webimage, Cikovsky pp 117, 124-25, 133

(vi) In his hunting paintings he also depicted both the natural & inevitable Darwinian struggle of animals for food animals but the inhuman conduct of some huntsmen.  The Fox Hunt is an [as in]  example of the former, showing hungry crows about to attack a fox trapped in deep snow, 1893 (Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts, Philadelphia), while human violence is portrayed in [the as in] Huntsman & Dogs, 1891 (Philadelphia Museum of  Art) as huntsmen in the Adirondacks were brutally hunted to earn a paltry sum by selling the hide & horns while leaving the meat.  This was a practice of which he condemned as his this stark painting in which his telling use of blood red paint indicates Cikovsky pp 108-112

(vii) These paintings contrast with beautiful & serene paintings of men in boats in the Adirondacks as in The Blue Boat, 1892 (Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, & of women embracing in his tranquil moonlit sea painting  A Summer Night, 1890 (Musee d’Orsay)

Speciality: From the mid-1870s he painted pictures featuring those of colour as in Cotton Pickers, 1876 (Los Angeles, County Museum of Art), & Dressing for the Carnival, 1877 (The MET).  The former depicts two beautiful & stately young women while the latter shows those preparing for an Afro-American festival, splendidly composed & richly coloured.  It is a world away from the cliched & condescending paintings of Negroes produced after the War during the Reconstruction era Grove14 p699, Hughes1997 pp 308-10, p699.  Homer’s Negro paintings reached a high point in the [as in] Gulf Stream, 1899 (The Met).  Here Homer broke artistic stereotypes by showing a man beset by sharks on a derelict boat which appeals to common humanity we share regardless of colour Cikovsky pp 120-21, Locke p46.

Aim: “When I have selected the thing carefully, I paint it exactly as it appears.” OxDicArt.

Characteristics: His draftsmanship & composition were strong  Grove14 p698.  One feature is the diagonals that cross from corner-to-corner Hughes1997 p312.   Another is way the figures are put in with firm, large outlines, well detached from the backgrounds I&C p355.    These outlines are not atmospherically dissolved as in Impressionism OxDicArt.  The highlights are blocked in firmly & crisply.   The brushwork is bold, fluid & direct with little working over & without glazing  I&C p355, Grove14 p698.   Although he could where necessary elaborate detail, he simplified as much as possible I&C p355.   His work featured luminous planes of light & dark OxDicArt.   The values are impeccable.   They are sure but not subtle or overrefined.   His colour is strong & sure, although sometimes a little harsh.   Except where nature provides one, there is no trace of a pervading colour note & hence his works are not decorative or ornamental.   They are windows opened in a wall rather than squares of brocade stretched upon it I&C pp 355-6.   There is no trace of sentimentality Grove14 p698.  

Innovation: The use of watercolour in America Hughes1997 p315

Verdict: He was the greatest pictorial poet of outdoor life in the USA & its greatest watercolourist Grove14 p698.   In his later pictures he  created  a distinctive masculine world  in which heroism, self-sacrifice, tragedy & grandeur predominate SuttonD1948 p22

Personality: His favourite words were “mind your own business” Hughes1997 p311.   In his last message he declared, “I have little time for anything, many letters unanswered & work unfinished.  I am painting” Museum of Art, Philadelphia

Grouping/Circle: He has been seen as carrying on from the Hudson River School Grove14 p698.  He was mostly closely associated with other artists during his early years in New York when he worked in the University Building & the Tenth Street Studio  & had numerous friends in the 1860s & 70s including John La Farge, Homer Martin, Eastman Johnson, Roswell Shurtleff, Enoch Perry, William Page & Eugene Benson Cikovsky p41

Reception/Repute: Critics soon praised Homer’s relatively crude technique as free from foreign influence Bjeljac p246.   He had an iconic status that resulted from anxiety about the feminization of the USA Hughes1997 p303.   Homer was seen with striking frequency both personally & artistically as virile, a self-taught & self-made celebrant of manly power, strong in will & muscle, & in fighting the elements Burns pp 188-9.   Critics praised his late pure seascapes for their virility & Americanness Grove14 p700.  [It is unlikely that Homer would have come to the attention of those with a general & non-professional interested interest in painting unless they visited American galleries].  It was not until 2022-23 that an exhibition of his work was held at the NG Web

Re-interpretation of Homer:  It has been argued that the traditional  view of Homer is a fiction;  that he referred to painting as “business”; that his letters reveal a keen & cynical awareness of supply & demand in the art market; that he & his brothers bought up a large area of Atlantic shoreline at Prout’s Neck & then sold lots for cottages to well-to-do summer residents; & that Homer’s own property was one of the few undeveloped pieces of land in what was a resort community.    It is further said that, although his paintings are certainly about nature & natural forces, they are at a deeper level linked to the exhilaration & anxiety generated in the late 19th century by the development of the American economy.    Natural forces had their counterpart in the rise & fall of commercial activity Burns pp189-92.   Comment: [That Homer regarded painting as a money-making activity & knew about the state-of-the-art market in itself proves almost nothing & throws no light on his underlying motivations or his choice of subject matter.   He obviously painted at a time when American capitalism was both aggressive & unstable.   This, however, does not indicate that his later pictures were directly inspired by the way in which the economy was performing & developing.   It is notable that Homer’s later paintings are often about an early stage of economic development in which fishermen are battling for a living or heroic rescues from natural forces are taking place.   The link between Homer’s pictures & capitalism was almost certainly of a more subtle type involving the pervasive belief in a Darwinian struggle for survival, which is reflected in the literature of the time.]  This literature is indeed briefly discussed by Sarah Burns in her the re-evaluation of Homer’s work Burns p192.   [However, what is objectionable is her suggestion that Homer was excusing & justifying the capitalist system by likening it to the world of nature.   She writes], “Instead of affording the aesthetic escape preferred by many of his contemporaries, Homer’s paintings functioned to displace the experience of precariousness & uncertainty, of unpredictable & often disastrous fluctuations onto the natural world, source of the ‘natural law’ that regulated economic life” Burns p194.   [To regard Homer as an apologist for capitalism, is to belittle his works.]

..HOLMBERG, Werner, 1830-1860,  Finland; National Romanticism:

Background: Born Helsinki.  To stimulate interest in their native land nationalists focused on landscape painting & during the 1850s Magnus & Ferdinand Von Wright painted idyllic Finnish landscapes     Grove14 p689, & 11 p95
Training: In Finland under Magnus von Wright & Pehr Krauskopf, & then from 1853 at Dusseldorf where he was the first Finnish painter to study landscape.  In 1855-6 he was a private pupil with Hans Gude who taught at the Academy & who had in 1848 painted the most famous work of Norwegian National Romanticism Grove14 p689, & 13 p776
Influences: Schirmer & Andreas Achenbach Grove14 p689
Career: He died of tuberculosis Grove14 p689
Oeuvre/Aim: Landscapes, his aim being the creation of a Finnish school of landscape painting  webimages, Grove11 p95, Ateneum p52
Phases/Characteristics: His landscapes mostly feature trees; some being tree portraits as in Storm on Lake Nasijarvi, while others are forest scenes as in Mail Road, both 1860 & (Ateneum, Helsinki).   Some of his early & small works are painted in a freely romanticised style with an emphasis on light & brilliant colours that give them the quality of early Impressionist works.   In his last works the detail is realistic but his religious idealism led him to aspire to a poetic beauty Grove14 p689
Innovations: In the superb watercolour sketches of 1857 he rediscovered the artistic possibilities of Finland’s landscape.   He was the first Finish painter to distinguish himself internationally Grove14 p689
Grouping/Status: He was Finland’s most important artist of the Dusseldorf School Ateneum p48
Legacy: He revitalized Finnish landscape, turning the forest into a valid artistic subject Grove24 p689

..HOLMES, Sir Charles, 1868-1936, England:

Background: Preston WoodDic
Career: He lived in London where he was Slade professor, 1904-10 & Director of the National Gallery, 1916.    An art historian he edited the Burlington Magazine.   He belonged to NEAC WoodDic
Oeuvre: Paintings & etchings of landscapes WoodDic

..Richard HOLST, 1868-1938, Netherlands:

Background: He was born at Amsterdam Grove 14 p691

Training: At the Rijksakademie, Amsterdam, under August Allebe, 1886-90 Grove 14 p691

Influences: Van Gogh & Jan Toorop after 1892 Grove14 p691

Career: In 1892 he began working in the region & in the latter 90s devoted himself to the new Social Democratise Partij producing lithographs of political cartoons.  From 1918 he taught at the Rijksakademie in Amsterdam becoming it director in 1926 Grove14 p691

Oeuvre: Landscapes, allegorical murals, lithographs, illustrations & stained-glass art Grove 14 p691

Phases: Impressionism then a Symbolist phase from around 1891 & then a more monumental style from 1900 in a series of murals GibsonM p233

Characteristics: Prior to about 1900 he painted serene landscapes, though some of them had stormy skies, & village girls.  His murals were in a tight severe style of a geometric type Grove 14 p691, webimages

..Theodor von HOLST, 1810-44, England:

Background: He was the son of a music teacher of Livonian descent WoodDic

Training: At the British Museum & the RA Schools under Fuseli WoodDic

Influences: Fuseli observed his drawing talents & gave him training after which he went to the RA Schools in 1824 Wikip

Oeuvre: He mainly painted literary subjects from British & European works from ancient to modern times, in particular the German Romantics Wikip

Characteristics/Feature: His work focuses on the demonic, supernatural & erotic, though he also painted orthodox portraits.  Following Fuseli, the women in his paintings & drawings have attenuated forms, are elaborately costumed & have distinctively arranged, or disarranged, hair.  He drew a series of pornographic images which were bought by George IV Wikip, ArtUK, Myrone pp 71, 74-5.

Verdict: Opinions differ: his imagination & draughtsmanship were praised but, according to Antal, he was rather amateurish Wikip, Antal1956 p149

Status: His art was, as Rossetti who admired his work was well aware, a transition & link between Fuseli & that of the Pre-Raphaelites Antal1956 p149.

*HOLZEL, Adolf, 1853-4, Germany; Rural Naturalism Movement

Background: He was born in Olmutz in Moravia.  His father ran a thriving publishing firm OxDicMod, Grove14 p694
Training: At the Vienna & Munich Academies.  In Munich he studied under Carl Barth & Wilhelm von Diez OxDicMod, Grove14 p694
Career: He visited Paris in 1882 & 1887, settled in Dachau in 1888 & opened a painting school.  Holzel studied colour theory intensively & from about 1895 formulated his own ideas about colour harmonies.  In 1905 he became a professor at the Stuttgart Academy & was its director from 1916.  His work was declared degenerate L&L, OxDicMod
Oeuvre/Phases: His paintings became increasingly abstract starting with landscape but then using religious & folk subjects; sometimes beyond recognition but aiming at poetic expression & a musical effect  OxDicMod, L&L
Characteristics: His abstract works are of a decorative geometric type with clear cut boundaries within which there is no modulation webimages
Beliefs: “there exist certain qualities that are justified in their own right & do not require representational supplementation, in fact atrophy under it”, 1916 OxDicMod
Students: Nolde, Baumeister, Etten, Schlemmer OxDicMod
Influence: His ideas were widely read being published from 1904 in the popular journal Die Kunst fur All OxDicMod

-HOLZER, Johann, 1709-40, Germany; Baroque:

Background: Born Burgis/Burgusio, South Tyrol, the son of a miller Grove14 p694, Wikip

Training: He was apprenticed with the Nicolaus Auer at Sankt Martin near Passau from 1724, & spent four years with Joseph Merz in Lower Bavaria helping him paint frescoes at Oberalteich Abbey.  Finally, he moved to Augsburg & painted altarpieces & devotional works under Johann  Bergmuller, the head of its Academy, with whom he lived Grove 14 pp 694-5, Wikip

Influences: Prints after Rubens & also Rembrandt Watteau Grove14 p694, L&L, Hempel p175

Career: In 1736 he painted his illusionistic dome fresco for St Anton, Partkirchen, one of the most beautiful in German art.  He became court painter to the Prince-Bishop of Eichstratt & was engaged on the existing though degraded ceiling fresco in the Summerresidenz,  Eichstratt.  During 1738-9 he painted the [as in] high altar of the Schutzengelkirche, his largest oil painting, & between 1737 & 1740 the demolished ceiling frescoes for the abbey church of Munsterschwarzach, designed by Balthazar Neumann for which a [as in] sketch survives (Augsburg Museum).  He died of typhoid L&L, Grove14 pp 695-96, Hempel Pl 108

Oeuvre: Frescoes on ceilings & exterior walls, altarpieces, devotional paintings, & drawings from which others produced etchings & mezzotints together with his sketches for lost exterior wall paintings as in Peasants Dancing, c1735 (Augsburg Museum)  L&L, Grove14 pp694-95, Hempel p185, Pl 108, 109

Characteristics/Verdict: His work has unusual freshness & originality.   The high altar at Schutzengelkirche features dramatic upward movement, forceful gesturing, well balanced design & extraordinary virtuosity in his treatment of light & shade with powerful chiaroscuro.   Figures appear to detach themselves from the walls & whereas Bergmuller never went beyond a generalised conception Holzer individualised his figures webimage, Hempel pp 175-6, Pl 108

Verdict: During his creative period of only ten years, he produced work of outstanding quality.  He was gifted & versatile; able to work on a small scale in illustrations etc & on monumental frescos Hempel p174, L&L

Reception:  His painted facades of houses in Augsburg were greatly admired by a visiting Italian Hempel p175

Influenced: His colleagues Gottried Goz, Johann Baumgartner, & Matthaus Gunther Grove14 p695

Grouping: Baroque Hempel p174

 .. HOMMEL, Conrad,  1883-1971. Germany; National Socialist:

Background: He was born in Mainz where his father was a counsellor & Hommel was related to Albert Speer Wikip

Training: At the studio of Jean-Paul Laurens in Paris, 1908, & the Munich Academy under Hugo von Habermann from 1909 Wikip

Career: He gained recognition before 1933 painting Friedrich Ebert, Albert Einstein, etc.  Several of his works were exhibited at the 1937 Great German Art Exhibition.  In 1939 & 1940 a portrait of Hitler & portrait grouping with him were commissioned.   One was the massively reproduced The Furrer on the Battlefield.  Another grouping depicted Goering at Luftwaffe Headquarters   He directed a painting class at the Berlin Academy of Art from 1939.   After the war he was accused of Nazi activism but the charge was quickly withdrawn & he subsequently painted several German economic leaders Wikip, Golomstovk pp 311, 321, 336

Oeuvre: Portraits & portrait groupings Wikip, Golomstock pp 311, 321, 336, Wikip

Characteristics: He painted in a realist manner Wikip

Hondecoeter.   See d’Hondecoeter

-Horace HONE, 1754-1825, Nathaniel’s son, England; British Golden Age

Background: Born London Grove14 p717Training: At the RA Schools from 1770 Grove14 p717
Career: He exhibited at the RA from 1772 to 1822, went to Dublin in 1782, became Miniature Painter to the Prince of Wales in 1795, & returned to London in 1804 Grove14 p717
Oeuvre: Paintings & engravings.   He mostly used watercolour but sometimes enamel Grove14 p717
Speciality: Richly coloured head & shoulders miniatures Grove14 p717.

-Nathaniel HONE, 1714-84, father of Camillus & Horace; brother of Samuel, England (Ireland):

Background: He was born in Dublin Grove14 p717
Influences: Dutch painting Grove14 p717
Career: In 1742 he married a Duke’s bastard daughter which enabled him to settle in London and study in Italy, 1750-2.  He soon made his name in London as a miniaturist.  He was a founder member of the RA OxDicArt
Oeuvre: Early miniatures on enamel, then portraits and fancy pictures; also prints L&L, Grove14 p717
Characteristics/Verdict: His sitters have bright eyes & self-conscious faces.   He painted notable portraits of children as in Piping Boy, 1769 (NG Dublin) Waterhouse1953 p267, Grove14 p717
Feature: Extreme jealousy for Reynolds & opposition to the dominant Italian Renaissance-inspired classicism.  He attacked him for borrowing from the Old Masters & for intimacy with Angelica  Kauffman as in the Pictorial Conjuror, Displaying the Whole Art of Optical Deception, 1775 (NG Ireland & unmodified sketch Tate Gallery) Grove14 p717
Innovation: He staged the first recorded one-man exhibition,1775, at St Martin’s Lane OxDicArt, Grove14 p717
Brother: Samuel painted miniatures.  He was mainly active in Dublin but died in Jamaica Grove14 p717
Nathaniel II & Evie for whom See Grove14 pp 717-18

Honthorst.   See Van Honthorst

Hooch.   See de Hooch

Hoogstraeten.  See van Hoogstraeten

..HOOK, James Clark, 1819-1907, England:

Training: With the portraitist John Jackson & at the RA Schools, 1839 WoodDic
Influences: The Pre-Raphaelites on his early work & later the rich colours of the great Venetians WoodC 1999 p349, WoodDic
Career: From1839 to 1902 he exhibited at the RA, in 1844 he won a Gold Medal in the Houses of Parliament Competition, he visited France & Italy, & was elected RA in 1860 WoodDic
Oeuvre: Historical scenes, landscapes, & from 1859 coastal scenes & seascapes, WoodDic
Characteristics/Verdict: His brisk style & rich colours were admirable for the effects of wind  & sunshine by the sea WoodDic

**HOPPER, EDWARD, 1882-1967, USA; Magic Realism:

Background: Born Nyack, New Jersey, the son of a dry-goods merchant.  The inter-war years were a period when America was inward-turned, an era of growing nationalism & isolationism.   Whereas the novelist Theodore Dreiser had, like the Ashcan School depicted  the big cities,  Hopper together with  Burchfield, used a location in small towns, as in the novels of  Sinclair Lewis Hughes1997 p422, Brown1955 p173; etc.  Earlier painters had depicted the frontier & it was Hopper who saw that the man of action was replaced by the solitary watcher Hughes1997 p423 

Training: Influenced by his supportive parents he studied commercial illustration with the  Correspondence  School of Illustrating, 1899-1900, & the New York School of Art under Arthur Keller Du Mond, 1900-06.  He then began studying painting particularly the classes of Robert Henri Grove14 p751

Influences: Degas & Symbolist poetry.   His technique was partly derived from the Dutch masters Rembrandt & Frans Hals.  Courbet’s heavy paintwork made a great appeal  Grove14 p751, Hughes1997 p422

Career: He went to Paris to study, 1906, painted en plein air, & visited London, the Low Countries & Berlin; returned to New York, 1907; went back to Europe during 1909 & 1910; tried to paint while working as an illustrator in New York & from 1910 spent the summers painting in rural New England, etc; & settled in Washington Square & exhibited at the Armoury Show where he first sold a painting, 1913; did not sell another for ten years; had commercial & critical success with a one man exhibition in 1924 at the Frank K. M. Rehm Gallery with whom he exhibited until death Grove14 p751

Oeuvre: Paintings in oils & from 1923 watercolour, & also etchings from 1915 Grove14 p751

Characteristics/Phases: He used a cold, hard, clearly focused illumination of reality which has a heightening effect.   His light illuminates but never warms.   He has no interest in the diffusion of light or the beauty of colour.   Hopper’s vision is essentially snap shop but, unlike Sloan & earlier realists, he does not paint a fleeting vision but freezes & immobilises his figures.  In his later work his figures appear lonely, detached & alienated, as in Room in New York, 1932 (Sheldon Memorial Art Gallery, University of Nebraska, Lincoln) which portrays a desolate couple.   His harsh realism was enhanced by bright shadow-casting light or the strange luminosity of dusk & artificial light as in Night Hawks, 1942 (Art Institute, Chicago).  After the mid-1920s his style changed little BrownM pp 175-6, Hughes1997 pp 423-6, Grove14 p752, OxDicMod

Subject Matter: He sought out the most depressing & ugliest features of America’s physical appearance.   This he found in the architectural remains of another age which symbolise the constrictions of an unlovely past  Brown1955 pp 173, 176

Status: Along with Jackson Pollock he was probably the most original American painter of the 20^th century Hughes1997 p423

Contrast with Stuart Davis: Like Davis he established a specifically American type of art but they were polar opposites.  They represent the two strands in American art during the 1930s.   Hopper looked backwards recording small-town America, poignant, homely & sometimes grotesque whereas Davis celebrated the vibrant present.   For Hopper contact with Europe meant little but for Davis it was crucial after the Armoury show.  Davis was highly involved in politics but Hopper’s  work was apolitical, though he actually loathed the New Deal Rose p115, Hughes1997 p423

Gossip: “When I don’t feel in the mood for painting, I go to the movies for a week or more.   I go on a regular movie binge!” Doss p83.

Aim: “To me, form, colour & design are merely a means to an end…they do not interest me greatly for their own sake.  I am interested primarily in the vast field of experience & sensation …My aim in painting is always, using nature as the medium, to try project upon canvas my most intimate reaction to the subject as it appears when I like it most, when the facts are given unity by my interest & prejudice.  He spoke of capturing “an asphalt road as it lies in the broiling sun at noon, cars & locomotives lying in Godforsaken railway yards… the acrid green of close-cut lawns…all the sweltering, tawdry life of the American small town” Renner pp 9-10, Hughes1997 p427

Characteristics/Subject Matter: Hopper mainly painted landscapes, buildings & scenes with figures, especially women.  Throughout his career they usually seem to have been caught unaware of the viewer, often being erotic nudes as in Summer Interior, 1909, & A Woman in the Sun, 1961 (both Whitney Museum of American Art, New York).  In some of his figure pictures nature & civilisation contrast as in Gas, 1940 (MoMA) Renner pp 8, 9, 26-27, 48, 54-56, 59, 61-64, 67, 72, 77, 82.

Feature: A remarkable & distinctive characteristic of Hopper’s buildings was the way in which so many of them are endowed with life.  They are not merely curious & strange but alive & on the point of emerging from their frames & moving into the space occupied by the viewer as in House by the Railroad, 1925 (MoMA).  To view Hopper, like some critics, as providing  a straightforward perspectival scene, & one merely drawing attention to the way in which strange, curious old buildings were in a modern America being replaced by new & up to date ones is to completely miss the point See Renner p32.  [Yes, Hopper was in one sense a realist but he was a Magic Realist.  Nevertheless it is magic of a particular type.  It is not portentous as in De Chirico’s cityscapes.  He painted the real world with, for instance, an exact play of light across a carefully observed facade as in Early Morning, 1930 (Whitney)

Legacy: Burchfield & Fischl painted Hopper-like paintings, but above all in innumerable stage sets & noir movies such as Hitchcock’s Psycho Renner pp 88, 92, Hughes1997 p422

Grouping: American Scene Painting, although he was maddened by being described as one Hughes1997 p423

Repute: During the Abstract Expressionist era his work was regarded as old-fashioned illustration but he was later hailed as a forefather of Pop Art & Photo-realism Grove16 p752

Collections: Whitney Museum, New York City

-HOPPNER, John, 1758-1810, England: British Golden Age:

Background: Born London, the son of Bavarian parents employed at court which was to his advantage as his work was spotted by George III & given a royal allowance Grove14 pp 753-4
Training: The RA Schools from 1775 Grove14 p754

Influences: Early 16^th century Venetian painting Grove14 p754

Career: He first exhibited at the RA, 1780; painted the daughters of George III, 1785; became Portrait Painter to the Prince of Wales, 1789; associated with the Prince’s set; was elected RA, 1795;  Grove14 p754, OxDicArt

Oeuvre: Portraits especially pretty women & also officers in military dress Grove14 p754, Webimages

Characteristics/Development: He was seldom original due to his emulation of Reynolds & then Lawrence.   However his early pictures are well drawn resembling Zoffany & his women & children sometimes have great charm.  The brushwork in his mature work had increased freedom & he employed scumbling & impasto; his palette became purer; his figures were spot-lit & set against dark backgrounds; & in his best work from 1790 he employed luscious harmonious colour; & some portraits display psychological insight as in Sarah Franklin Bache, 1793 (The Met).   The [as in] masterpiece of his later years, Sleeping Nymph, 1806 (NT Petworth) was unusual in not being a portrait but typical in most other respects OxDicArt, Grove14 p754.

Verdict: His work has [unfairly] been dubbed eclectic & facile L&L

Status: After Reynolds’ death he was the leading portraitist with Lawrence OxDicArt

..HORNEL, Edward Atkinson, 1864-1933, Scotland:

Background: He was in born in Australia at Victoria, but his parents soon went to KIrkeudbright OxDicMod

Training: 1889-3 at the Trustees’ Academy, Edinburgh, without enjoyment or instruction.   Then at the Antwerp Academy under Verlat where he received a thorough training Grove14 p765, Billcliffe p192.

Influences: Monticelli at the Edinburgh International Exhibition, 1886, , & Henry who encouraged greater impasto & a more decorative style Billcliffe p236, McConkey1989 p157.   He was infatuated with Galloway folk tales about wood spirits & especially goats Bullcliffe p239.

Career: In 1885 he returned to  Scotland & during 1886 painted  alongside Henry in Kirkcudbright which was his base for the rest of his life.   During  1890-1 he painted joint works with Henry.   During 1894-5 he made a trip to Japan with Henry.   However he gradually severed contact with Henry & the Glasgow Boys.   He became financially successful; refused honours from the Royal Scottish Academy.   Hornel ended as  the father figure in the father figure in artists’ colony at Kirkcudbright Bullcliffe pp 192,  233-4, Grove14 765

Speciality: flat tapestry-like in jewelled colours paintings of girls in gardens/woodlands OxDicMod

Phases/Characteristics: His early work was non-naturalist work, but around 1985 he adopted a lighter palette & greater tonality using square the brush use.   In 1887 his compositions became increasingly accomplished, commencing with Pigs in a Wood, in which he first displayed his lasting fascination with the claustrophobic enclosure of dense woodland.    His work now featured an inventive depiction of the differing textures of trees, leaves & undergrowth as in Pigs in a Wood, 1887, which initiated his fascination with an enclosed subject.   He used a narrow range of tones & colours, occasional engaging in pure symbolism (Brownie of Blednoch).   His works were similar to Pont Aven Post-Impressionism, though there is no clear evidence of familiarity Bullcliffe pp 193-5, 239-40.   After the Japan trip he painted repetitive colourful friezes of young girls in blossoming bowers, fields & woodland picking flowers or chasing butterflies McConkey1989 p157, Grove14 p765

Influence: Hornel encouraged Henry’ tendency towards bravura & gusto .   He  was instrumental in the Boys’ adoption of Kirkeudbright in the latter 1880s Billcliffe p192

..HORSLEY, John Calcott, 1817-1903, England; Troubadour and Victorian Modern Life Movement

Background: He was born in London into the artistic establishment & was the nephew of the landscapist Augustus Wall Callcott Grove14 p768
Training: At  Henry Sass ‘Academy & the RA Grove14 p768
Career: He had a long & successful career from Rent Day at Haddon Hall in the Days of Queen Elizabeth, his first RA exhibit,1839; joined the Cranbrook Colony & moved there permanently, 1861, living in a house he had had extended by Norman Shaw.  In 1864 he became an RA & during 1875-90 was its Rector.  He objected to the use of nude models in the RA Schools & was dubbed Clothes-Horsley WoodDic, Treuherz1993 pp 122, 27; Robins p4
Oeuvre: Oils & two frescoes in the Palace of Westminster Grove14 p768
Phases/Characteristics/Speciality: Initially he painted portraits, then historical subjects, & in the 1850s & 60s modern genre works which were informal & unpretentious & constituted his best work as in A Pleasant Corner, 1865 (RA).   However his speciality was scenes of flirtation in the countryside featuring sunshine & pretty women.  These were notable for the absence of mawkishness as in Blossom Time, 1859 (Private), & Showing a Preference, 1860.   From the 1880s he returned to portraiture Grove14, p768, WoodDic, Reynolds1987 p36

..HORTON, Percy, 1897-1970, England:

Background: He was born in Brighton.   His father was a bus conductor & the family was of a striving nature Wikip

Training: The Brighton School of Art, 1912-6, the Central School of Art, 1918-20, & the Royal College of Art, 1922-24 Liss Llewellyn site

Career: He won a scholarship to the Brighton Municipal Secondary School.   As a conscious objector he was court martialled three times, sentenced to two years of hard labour, but finally released on health grounds.   In 1925 he became art master at Bishop Stortford College & began giving classes at the Working Men’s College, London.   During the 1930s he exhibited consistently at NEAC. In 1949 he became Ruskim Master of Drawing at Oxford Wikip, Liss Llewellyn site, McConkey2006 p163

Oeuvre/Phases: Portraits of unemployed men painted in a low-key, & displaying dignity through restraint.   After evacuation to Ambleside,  he painted the Lake District & its people.   He drew portraits & painted war factory scenes for the War Artists Advisory committee.  Favourite places for painting were the South Downs around Firle & Provencal farmsteads Liss Llewellyn site, Spalding1986 p125, Wikip

Politics: He belonged to the ILP & was an early member of the Artists International Association M&R p11

Beliefs: “one must paint from reality with a human concern” Spalding1986 p125

Pupil: Kitaj Liss Llewellyn site

Brother: Ronald, 1902-81, was an artist Wikip

Collections: Imperial War Museum

Housebook Master.   See Master of Housebook

..HOST, Oluf, 1884-1966, Denmark:

Background: He was from the island of Bornholm Kent p223
Training: At Vermehren’s painting school, & the Kunstakadamiet, 1905-16, under Rohde & Giersing Kent p223
Influences: Van Gogh,  Cezanne & the changing seasons & weather Wikip
Career: He had a farmhouse on Bornholm at the village of Gudhhjem but travelled to Italy, France etc Kent pp 198, 223
Oeuvre: Paintings of coastal scenes, farmhouses & stables, particularly from his village Kent p223
Characteristics: His  paintings are vividly & interestingly coloured, often with dramatic light & weather effects  as in Winter Sunset, 1931 (Staten’s Museum for Kunst, Copenhagen) Wikip, Kent pp 190, 223
Grouping: Danish Expressionism Wikip

.. HOUASSE, Rene-Antoine, 1645-1710, France:

Background: He was born in Paris Grove14 p793.
Training: Le Brun Grove14 p793
Influences: Raphael & Giulio Romano via Le Brun Grove14 p793
Career: From 1670 he was employed by Le Brun at the Tuileries, & then from about 1680 on decorating the Grand Appartment at Versailles.   After 1688 he painted a series of mythologies for the Grand Trianon at Versailles Grove14 p793
Oeuvre: Decorations, paintings & portraits Grove14 p793
Characteristics: His personal style in the Trianon works etc combines classicising & Mannerist influences, using free brushwork & delicate grey-blue & green colouring Grove14 p793.
Progeny: His son Michel-Ange Houasse, 1680-1730 was also a painter.   He was employed at the court of Philip V of Spain Grove14 p793

-HOUBRAKEN/HOUBRACKEN, Arnold, 1660-1719, Netherlands=Amsterdam:

Background: He was born in Dordrecht Grove14 p794

Training: Drawing lessons from Willem Van Drilling, 1672, apprenticeship to Jacobus Lovech, & under Samuel Van Hoogstraten, c1674-8, for whom he produced illustrations & from whom he learned about classicising art theory Grove14 p794

Career: Initially he was a yarn winder & occasionally had to copy drawings & prints.  He entered the guild of St Luke, 1678; moved to Amsterdam, 1709-10; became a citizen; went to England to draw illustrations, but soon returned.  His book The Great Theatre of Netherlandish Men & women Painters, 1718-21, was a sequel to Van Mander’s work consisting of biographies of Dutch artists from the early 16^th century.  His most important principle was that artists should only depict the beautiful & elevated subjects Grove14 p794, etc

Oeuvre: History paintings in which he specialised, mythological & genre works, landscapes, ceiling paintings, portraits, book illustrations & drawings Grove14 p794, webimages

Characteristics/Verdict: His paintings are elegant & small, his genre is entertaining as in Landscape with Sportsmen, late 1670s (Dulwich Picture Gallery), he had a polished touch, his colouring was subdued & his composition carefully balanced.  They have been said to suffer from an over-rigid adherence to academic principles [but this seems harsh] Grove14 p794, ArtUK site

Pupils: Mattys Balen, Adriaen Van der Burgh, Johan Graham & Jacob Zeeus Grove14 p794

Repute: It declined quickly after 1750 & only revived slightly in the  late 20^th century Grove14 p794.

Son: Jacobus Grove14 p794

..HOUGHTON, Arthur, 1836-75, England (India); Victorian Modern Life Movement:

Background; He was born at Kotagiri, Madras, & his father was a draughtsman in the East India Company  Grove14 p799

Training: Briefly at the RA Schools, 1855,  & at J. M, Leigh’s academy & the related Langham Artists’ Society Grove 14 p800

Influences:  The idealism of the Pre-Raphaelite brotherhood, the master engraver J. W. Whymper, Utamaro, Adolf  Menzel, & Hogarth.  In America he was attracted by its vitality Grove14 p800

Career: By the time he was 25 he had mastered the woodblock technique.  He worked for the Graphic, Fun & other periodicals; exhibited 1859-64 at the RA, visited America, 1869-70 & produced a powerful illustration of New York, Boston, a Shaker community & the Mormon Utopia, & then depicted the blood-bath of the French civil war following the 1870 debacle  Grove14 p800, WoodDic

Oeuvre: He was primarily a book & magazine illustrator, although painting in oil & watercolour was his primary concern.  His oils were generally small  Treuherz1993 p123, Reynolds 1966 pp 109-10, Grove14 p800, WoodDic

Characteristics: His works featured unsentimental Realism & were not overloaded with social significance.  Both his paintings & drawings have a haunting blend of poetic realism, & he painted in vibrant colour Reynolds1987 p109, Treuherz1993 p123, Grove 14 p799  webimages

Phases:  He turned away from modern life works in the early 1870s & painted religious subjects Grove 14 p800

Speciality: Spirited cockney ragamuffins; & also paintings of London life as in Volunteers, 1860, & beech scenes as in Ramsgate Sands, c1861 (the Tate, both) Treuherz1993 p123, webimages

Feature: He was extremely versatile & his work included landscapes & history paintings webimages

Innovation: His major role in the 1860-75 renaissance of English wood-engraved book illustration Grove14 p799

Influenced: Arthur Rackham & Edmund Sullivan, & in America Howard Pyle & N.C. Wyeth Grove14 p800

Reception: He became known for his brilliant illustrations of Dalziel’s Arabian Knights, 1865, etc WoodDic

Repute: He has not received the attention he deserves & is not itemised in the Yale Dictionary or the Oxford Companion

Housebook Master.   See Master of Housebook

..HOUSTON, John, 1930-2008, Scotland:

Background: He was born at Buckhaven, Fife.   In the 1960s art had a much-enhanced status in Edinburg Wikip, Macmillan1994 p105
Training: Edinburgh College of Art Wikip
Influences: American minimalization of representation & the assumption that painting should be abstract to be modern Macmillan1994 p110
Career: After playing for Dundee United, he turned to art & taught at Edinburgh College, 1955-89.   In1957, he co-founded the co-operative 57 Gallery in Edinburgh & in 1972 was elected to the Royal Scottish Academy.  He said that in the mid-1970s it was difficult to continue painting because it was in disrepute Wikip, Macmillan1994 p133
Oeuvre: Landscapes, still-life, & portraits.   His landscapes are non-geometric & expressionistic Wikip, webimages, Macmillan1994 pp 112-3

..HOVENDEN, Thomas, 1840-93, USA/Ireland:

Background: He was born in Dunmanway, Ireland WoodDic

Training: He was apprenticed to a frame carver, attended evening classes at the Cork School of Design, & then the National Academy of design, 1864-8, & in 1874 went to Paris & entered the studio of Alexandre Cabal at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts Grove14 p804, ArtinParis p246

Influences: Jules Breton Grove14 p804

Career: In 1863 emigrated to New York & made money framing & doing odd jobs.  He went with other Americans to Pont-Aven in Brittany, stayed in Brittany for five years, exhibited at the Salons during, 1876-80, returned in 1880 & settled at Plymouth Meeting, Pennsylvania.   He was elected Academician at the National Academy of Design, 1882, & taught at the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts, 1886-8 & 1890-1 Grove14 p804, ArtinParis p246

Oeuvre: Primarily genre, but also landscapes, portraits, & history painting WoodDic, Grove14 p80, I&C p502

Characteristics: Naturalism of detail & overall clarity in his genre & impressionistic landscapes Grove14 p804

Feature: He painted a series of studies of Negro/black American life I&C p502

Reception: Breaking Home Ties was voted the most popular painting at the World’s Columbian Exhibition, 1893 Grove14 p804

.. HOWARD, George, 9th Earl of Carlisle, 1843-1911, England; Aestheticism:

Background: His mother was a pupil of Peter De Wint & previous Earls had been discerning collectors & connoisseurs  Newall1989 p72, Grove14 pp 807-808

Training: Leigh’s School under William Thomas; & at the Royal College of Art under Alphonse Legros, 1865 Newall1989 p72

Career: He was introduced to the Pre-Raphaelite circle by Rossetti; & met Giovanni Costa.  Howard bought his pictures, promoted him, & invited him periodically to Haworth Castle.  From 1868 Howard  exhibited widely at London Galleries, including the Grosvenor Gallery, 1877-87.   He made frequent trips to Europe & visited Africa & West Indies; & was a close friend & associate of the later Pre-Raphaelites, commissioning work from Burne-Jones.  From 1881 he sat on the Board of Trustees of the National Gallery, eventually becoming chairman, helped found the Tate Gallery, & left 11 paintings from the Castle Howard Collection to the NG  Newal1989l p72, Grove14 p809

Phases: During 1877-85 he mostly painted Italian subjects Newal1989l p72

Oeuvre: Landscapes in oil & watercolour Newall1989 p72

Characteristics: His paintings are pleasing & well-composed & he had the ability to focus a work on some feature which provides it with visual interest.  He often enhanced his works with striking chiaroscuro &/or trees with curved & spindly trunks as in Villagers on a Country Road, Nasik, Western India, 1891-92 (British Library) See illustrations in Newall & Castle Howard guide 5^th edition, 2013 p51, & at ArtUK

Circle/Friends: He held house parties where those from all walks of life discussed politics, philosophy & the arts, many of whom he entertained at Castle Howard Newall1989 p72, Grove14 pp 808-809, Wikip

..Ken (Kenneth)  HOWARD, 1932-2022, England; Post-1945 Realism:

Background: He was born in north London at Neasden into a working-class family.  His father was a mechanic from Lancashire who was unemployed when he was born & his mother a Scot who worked as a cleaner Guardian obituary, Howard p14

Training: After grammar school he went to the Hornsey College of Art, 1949-53, & the Royal College of Art, 1955-8, which was not a happy period because, among other reasons, of the shift away from social realism to Abstract Expressionism.    Wikip, Howard pp 90-1

Influences: Goya, Corot, Courbet, Manet, Monet, Cezanne, Degas,  the early work of Victor Passmore, & the Kitchen Sink school, Ben Shahn  Howard pp 36-7, 45, 49, 99, 117

Career: He began exhibiting at RA while still training & was later elected to the New English Art Club.  After National Service in the Royal Marines, 1953-5, he obtained a British Council Scholarship to study in Florence, & when he returned began teaching part-time at a number of art schools including Ealing, Harrow, Berkhamsted & Walthamstow.   From 1973 he painted in Northern Ireland virtually as a war artist for the Imperial War Museum as in Street Patrol, Belfast, 1974 (Beechcroft Art Gallery, Southend).   He was finally elected to the RA in 1991 & between 1998 & 2003 he was an innovative President of NEAC Howard pp 58-9, 107, 130, 134 Wikip, Guardian, McConkey2006 pp 238-9

 Oeuvre: Town & landscapes in numerous countries & varied locations but especially in London, Venice & Cornwall, ranging from depictions of iconic places as in Mansion House, London, c1971(Guildhall Art Library) to those of a much less elevated nature as in Railway Sidings & Kingston Riverfront, 1970 (The Box Plymouth).  His work includes beech, harbour & river views; nudes, portraits & still life Howard illustrations, web images

Characteristics: From the beginning his work was representational & of a tonal type.  [However, the crucial feature of Howard’s work is the way in which it reveals his love of paint.  This must arise, not only from his ability to manipulate it in order to achieve his objective, but also from his love for paint itself, the oily, smelly substance.   It is a characteristic which he shares with Lucian Freud in his latter work.]  The love of paint, & of course painting, is reflected in the bravura & virtuoso nature of his oeuvre as in La Giudecca, Winter Morning (Royal West of England Academy).  His early paintings were by no means colourful but his palette tended to lighten in Florence & after a visit to Spain in 1961.  Although he had always been preoccupied by the play of light it became more obvious & evident.] Howard pp 46, 118, 120, 142-3

Aim, Beliefs & Development: He began by painting railway yards & factories of a Kitchen-Sink type in Neasden, regarding the area & the scenes as mysterious, exciting & beautiful Wikip, Howard pp 10-11, 18-9.   He never aimed at being innovative or Avant Garde & when told by a teacher at Hornsey that his work was old fashioned, he replied that he would continue with his existing style. After an old railway worker looked at what he was painting, & said that he now realised the rail yard was beautiful, Howard recognised that his aim was to communicate his particular vision revealing  what he loved & celebrating life.  The belief that representational art is pointless because it is unoriginal is nonsense.  If it expresses your feelings, it will be like nothing else ever done before Howard pp 40, 46-7, 52, 100, 132

Specialities: Female nudes painted contra-jour in his London studio & enlivened with a fronting table on which there are the cluttered tools of his trade or surrounded with other painting equipment.  Also, reflections in puddles on wet streets in London, and in Venice during the winter, where he had an apartment Guardian, Howard pp 243, 261, 267, etc

Gossip: He painted en plein air in Northern Ireland & found to his surprise found friends on both sides of the sectarian divide because he was not using a camera & they could see what he was doing.  An IRA man blew up a car to make it more picturesque Guardian

Non-recognition: He is not included in the published Grove Dictionary, L&L, OxDicMod, Brigstocke  & standard texts.  Critics such as Brian Sewell regarded his work as saccharine.  The Tate Gallery does not own a single picture  Prendeville, Hopkins, Guardian, Tatesite

Grouping: He described himself as the last Impressionist Guardian

Collections: Guildhall Art Gallery, Imperial War Museum, The Box, Plymouth

..HOWSON, Peter, 1958-, Scotland:

HOYER, Hermann Otto, 1893-1968, Germany: Nazi:

Career: He was quickly wounded  & captured during the Great War.  His treatment by the French was appalling & he was greatly distressed at being captured.   He made four attempts to escape & during the last lost his right arm having been run over by a train.   After the war he settled in Obersdorf in Bavaria, having been given a plot of land by the town’s richest man with whose son he had tried to escape.  He taught himself how to paint with his left hand, joined the Nazi party in 1931, & painted In the Beginning was the Word, 1937.   This was shown at the important exhibition of Nazi art at Munich & a print was widely distributed.  Hoyer’s work was much admired by Hitler Boyd pp 50-4, 361, Golomstock p324, Dunlop pp 239, 243.
Beliefs: Hoyer was not an anti-Semite.  In 1931 he engaged in a fierce public argument at which he said that he had known some very decent Jews citing a wartime comrade.   He was also accused of violating National Socialist policy concerning women’s place in society by advising a widow with children to find work Boyd pp 52-4, 87.

 -HUBBUCH, Karl, 1891-1979, Germany:

Background: Born in Karlsruhe Hayward1979 p127
Training: At the Art Academy, Karlsruhe; at the Teaching Institute of the Museum of Applied Arts under Orlik; & at the Landeskunstschule at Karlsruhe, 1920-22 Hayward1979 p127
Career: Between 1925 & 1933 he was a professor at the Landeskunstschule.    Forbidden to make art, he was unemployed until 1945.   During 1945-7 he was active in an artistic capacity against Fascism.   From 1948 to 1957 he was professor at the Academy, Karlsruhe he taught architecture  Hayward1979 p127
Characteristics/Oeuvre: His work in the early 1920s is distinguished by montage-type effects Hayward1979 p127.Believing that society is divided between those hungry for wealth & power, & the workers who want peace & work, his paintings show both groups perform in suitable settings.   He also painted portraits & slightly mocking pictures of ordinary people in some heroic role L&L
Friends: Schlichter & Scholz Hayward1979 p127

*HOYLAND, John, 1934-2011, England; Lyrical Abstraction:

Background: Born Sheffield OxDicMod
Training: Shefield College of Art, 1951-6 OxDicMod
Influences: Nicholas de Stael & the teaching of Victor Passmore OxDicMod
Career: He took part in the Situation exhibition of abstracts, 1951, & the New Generation,1964.  Subsequently he visited New York met Helen Frankenthaler, Kenneth Noland & Clement Greenberg OxDicMod
Oeuvre: Paintings, screen prints, & etchings OxDicMod
Phases/Characteristics: His earlier paintings featured bands of colour, later his works were completely flat with paint soaked into the canvas & simple intensely coloured floating forms.  Then following Hans Hoffman, discovered in New York, he used thick layers of brilliantly coloured paint.  His paintings are of a lyrical & modulated type but sometimes contain rectangular & circular forms OxDicMod, webimages
Aim: He says he cannot explain coherently why he does what he does but it is self-exploration OxDicMod

*HUBER, Wolf/Wolfgang, c1487-1553, Germany (Austria):

Background: He was born at Feldkirch in Austria L&L
Influences: Durer L&L
Career: Around 1505 he began a Wanderjahr travelling to Innsbruck & Salzburg;  By 1415 he was court painter & architect to the prince-Bishop in Passau, where stayed L&L.   He was in contact with Altdorfer by about 1510 Murrays1959
Oeuvre: Pure landscape in pen & ink; altarpieces; & portraits, some with important landscape L&L
Characteristics: His work was more nature-dependant than that of Alderfer, &  more Romantic than Durer’s L&L
Status: He was the most important Danube school painter after Altdorfer Murrays1959

-HUDSON, Thomas, 1701-79, England; British Golden Age

Background: He was born in Devonshire Grove14 p841.  There was, at the time he was painting, an ethic of politeness within elite culture featuring ease, gracefulness & politeness rather than the assertion of an individual’s distinction & difference Hallett p43.

Teacher: Richardson whose daughter he married OxDicArt

Career: He is first recorded as a painter in1728.   Until 1740 Hudson divided his time between London & the West Country, including Bath.   In the 1840s he became one of London’s leading portrait painters.   During 1748 he travelled to Flanders with Hogarth, Hayman, van Aken, etc) & in 1852 to Italy (with Roubiliac) Grove14 p841.   He semi-retired around 1758 OxDicArt

Oeuvre: Portraits, including those of groups Grove14 pp 841-2,

Characteristics/Phases: He used standard patterns & relied on specialist assistants L&L.   His work is usually solid but unpoetic; men sometimes holding masks are more elegantly posed than women.   Faces are roundish with little personality, & his draperies have a metallic glitter, though with a hint of Rococo Waterhouse1953 pp 201-2.  His paintings have a subdued elegance & the sitters seem happy in themselves & pleased to see us.   They are often smilingVaughan1999 pp 73-4, Hallett pp43, 64.   During the 1750s his face painting technique became looser & more feathery & his work was more richly colored  Grove14 p841.

Status: Around 1745-1755 he was London’s most fashionable portraitist, rivalled only by Ramsey OxDicArt

Innovations: A man standing but leaning on an object with legs elegantly crossed & with a bent leg resting on his toes symbolising well-bred negligence.   This had earlier been used by Ramsey, & was later employed by every fashionable painter BurkeJ pp 106-7.

Features: Hudson used Van Aken for drapery Waterhouse1953 p167.   However he was well able to paint lace cuffs etc for himself (John Sharp Archdeacon of Durham).

Status: He has been placed under the heading “Return of the Grand Portrait” Vaughan1999 pp 73-4.

Verdict; He was the last of the conscienceless artists that began in England with Lely & who painted on a standard pattern, although he was capable of good work Waterhouse1953 pp 201-2.   His work has been thought to be generally dull [but is this too harsh?]  BurkeJ p108.

Gossip: He was nearly driven to stop painting when Van Aken died  Walpole2 p331.

Circle: Along with Hogarth, Ramsay, Hayman, etc he was one of the artists who met Old Slaughter’s coffee house in the mid-1740s & promoted Coram’s Foundling Hospital Grove14 p841.

Pupils: Reynolds Wright of Derby, John Hamilton Mortimer Grove14 p841.

-Christophe HUET, 1700-1759, France; Rococo:

Background: Born in Pontoise, Val d’Oise Grove14 p845
Influences: Francois Desportes Grove14 p846
Career: He was admitted to the Academie de Saint-Luc, 1734; exhibited at its first Salons, from 1751
Influences: The decorative design tradition of Berain & Audran  OxDicArt
Oeuvre: Painter, decorative designer, & engraver L&L
Speciality: Monkeys dressed up & behaving like humans as in his drawing Two Monkeys Smoking (Courtauld Institute, London) & Chinese figures accompanied by monkeys imitating men OxDicArt, Grove14 p846, Wakefield pp54-5
Grouping: Rococo L&L
Repute: This now largely rests on the attractive interiors he designed for Mme de Pompadour etc because few of his animal paintings, confusable with those of his nephew Jean Baptiste, 1745-1811, have been identified Grove14 p846
Locations: Musee Conde, Chantilly; Chateau de Champs-sur-Marne Wakefield p55

..Paul HUET, 1803-69, France:

Background: He was in born Paris, the son of a cloth merchant Bouret p51

Training: In 1818 he was briefly under Guerin, & in 1819 entered  Gros’ studio where Bonington, who became a close friend, was a fellow student Norman1977, Bouret p52

Influences: The Salon Exhibition of 1824 which featured Constable etc, together with the Romantic poets Norman1977

Career: Around 1816-20 he painted in the rambling wilderness of the Ile de Seguin near Saint-Cloud & later especially in Normandy, where he produced many seascapes.   After 1849 he was often at Barbizon & he travelled widely Norman1977, Grove14 p847

Technique: He worked constantly from nature, painting en plein air from an early age Norman1977, Grove14 p847

Oeuvre: Oils, watercolours, etchings & lithographs Norman1977, Grove14 pp 847-8

Characteristics: His primary concern was to capture atmosphere & express the mood of nature by seeking out the contrasts light & shade occurring in forests, storms & floods,  He used thick impasto to render the play of light, which he captured in his [as in] masterpiece Landscape: Evening, 1834 (Musee des Beux-Arts, Lille Grove p14, Norman1977

Friends: Delacroix from1822, Bonington, Hugo, Dumas & other writers Norman1977

Innovations: Contemporaries considered him the founder of Romantic landscape Norman1977

Grouping: He was a Romantic & a forerunner & associate of the Barbizon School & he also influenced the Impressionists Norman1977, Grove14 p848

Son: Rene-Paul was a painter & his pupil Grove14 p848

-Arthur HUGHES, 1830-1915, England:

Background: Born London Grove14 p849

Training:  Under Alfred Stevens at the School of Design at Somerset House, 1846; at the RA Schools from 1847 Brigstocke, Grove14 p839

Influences: Especially Millais Grove14 p849

Career: Meets Hunt, Rossetti & Brown, 1850; exhibits Ophelia (Art Gallery, Manchester), 1852; exhibits his [as in] masterpiece April Love (The Tate, London), 1856; helps Rossetti with the Oxford Union frescoes, 1857; exhibits another [as in] masterpiece The Long Engagement, 1859 (City Art Gallery, Birmingham), & also Home from Sea, 1863 (Ashmolean, Oxford).  He was shy & withdrawn & in later life lived in suburban obscurity, though continuing to exhibit at the RA until 1908 Brigstocke, OxDicArt, Grove14 p849

Oeuvre: Oils depicting modern life subjects together with a period of Arthurian works, & also portraiture, etc Brigstocke, Grove14 p849

Characteristics: He had a sophisticated sense of colour & composition; his drawing was lyrical but his subject matter was unoriginal.  His important Pre-Raphaelite  works convey a mood of intimate tenderness charged with emotion.  They included the tender feelings childhood  often painted with a childlike delight in the details of flowers, animals & birds.  He loved the soft effects of moonlight, sunset & firelight, was skilled at depicting detail & texture, & in the use of bright, glowing Pre-Raphaelite greens, purples & blues Brigstocke, OxDicArt, Grove14 p849

Phases: From the mid-1860s or not long after his work lost its intensity of vision & precise handling, though from 1855 he produced some good illustrations Grove p849, OxDicArt

Reception/Patronage:  April Love was much admired by Ruskin.  Most of his patrons belonged to the restricted circle of Pre-Raphaelite collectors James Leather Brigstocke, Grove14 p849

Grouping: The Pre-Raphaelites, though never an official member L&L

HUGUET, Jaime/Jaume, before 1414-c92, Spain:

Background: Born Valls Grove14 p857
Influences: Flemish naturalism with its expressive precision together with Italian components resulting in work that is highly eclectic Moffitt p74, Brown 1998 p14
Career: He settled in Barcelona by 1448, & became dean of the Comfraria de S. Esteve which included painters & bridle makers Grove14 p857
Speciality: The sumptuous composite altarpieces produced by his studio OxDicArt
Characteristics: Brilliant draftsmanship in works which feature surface richness & are crowded with stately figures mostly wearing stiff, heavy, brocaded garments painted in embutido which is raised gilded gesso as in the Coronation of St Augustine, 1486 (Museum d’Art de Catalunya, Barcelona) L&L, Grove14 p858
Workshop: It was large containing many apprentices & contract workers Grove14 p857
Status: He succeeded Bernat Martorelli as the leader of the Catalan school L&L
Influence: It was widespread in Catalonia & Aragon OxDicArt
Grouping: International Gothic. His style represents the last flowering of the late medieval painting tradition L&L
Patronage: Parish churches, prominent trade guilds & Pedro the Constable of Portugal Grove14 p857

*HUME, Gary, 1962-, England:

Background: Born Tenterden, Kent OxDicMod
Training: Goldsmiths College until 1968 OxDicMod
Career: He has studios in London & New York, & was elected to the RA in 2001 Wikip, RAsite
Oeuvre: Paintings & sculpture OxDicMod
Characteristics: Until 1964 his large rectangular paintings were reminiscent of hospital swing doors.  Then by the early 1990s, in the enjoyable works for which he is best known, using highly reflective gloss paint on aluminium panels, etc, he produced much-simplified human figures, sometimes of celebrities, together with abstracts.   He uses only a few colours in clear cut unmodulated work OxDicMod, L&L, webimages
Philosophy: In 1912 he held an exhibition called “indifferent owl”.  After hearing an owl, he found an almost deflated Happy Birthday balloon & imagined the owl watching.  “That’s how I see life.  I’m the owl, totally disengaged…” Wikip

-HUMPHREY, Ozias, 1742-1810, England:

Background: He was born at Honiton Grove14 p879
Training: Shipley’s Academy in London from 1757, & in Bath with the miniaturist Samuel Collins from 1760 Grove14 p879
Career: His eyesight was impaired in 1772 & he abandoned small-scale works.  During 1773-7 he was in Italy with Romney studying oil painting.   From 1779 to 1783 he exhibited life-sized oils at the RA.   Over-ambitious large works were unsuccessful & his income slumped.   During 1785-8 he was in India.  He adopted crayons & in 1792 became Portrait Painter in Crayon to George III.   Humphrey went blind in 1797 L&L, Grove14 p879.
Oeuvre: Portraits L&L
Characteristics: His miniatures feature delicate colouring & sure draughtsmanship.  Much of his work appears to be half-face, head & shoulders portraits Grove14 p879, webimages
Verdict: His oil paintings were no better than a third-rate echo of Romney Waterhouse1953 p336

-HUNDERTWASSER/STOWASSER, Friedrich, 1928-2000, Austria:

Background: He was born in Vienna L&L
Training: Three months at the Vienna Academy L&L
Influences: Early on Schiele L&L
Career: He exhibited widely with great success L&L
Oeuvre: Paintings, graphic work & design OxDicMod
Characteristics: His works are mainly small, often in watercolour, semi-abstract, jewel like in execution, fairy-tale in mood with borrowing from others OxDicArt, L&L
Boast: That his paintings would take viewers into a new life of peace & happiness: a world shut out by the sickness of civilisation OxDicMod

..Sidney HUNT, 1934-2011, England:

..William Henry HUNT, confusable with William Holman 1790-1864, England:

Background: Born in London Norman1977
Training: He was apprenticed to John Varley in about 1804, attended Dr Thomas Monro’s Academy, & then at the RA Schools Grove15 p24
Career: He sketched with his fellow apprentice John Linnell along the Thames, exhibited periodically with the Society of Painters in Water-colours from 1814; & became a full member, 1826 Grove15 p24
Oeuvre: This included still life, landscape and rustic genre Norman1977
Characteristics: His small, highly detailed watercolours of nature included flowers, fruits & birds’ nests for which he was famous, earned him the nickname Bird’s Nest Hunt as in Chaffinch Nest & May Blossom c1845 (The Courtauld, London) &  Plums (V&A) Norman1977, Reynolds1971 p122.  It might wrongly be thought that his work was somewhat restricted in scope.  However ie also included barn & house interiors, landscapes & tree portraits Webimages
Phases & Technique: During the 1830s he adopted the painstaking method of stippling colour over a ground of heavily gummed Chinese white which influenced John Frederick Lewis & the Pre-Raphaelites Grove15 p24
Close Friend: Linnell Norman1977
Repute, Legacy: His work was highly praised by Ruskin to whom he gave lessons, and much influenced the watercolourist Myles Birket Foster, etc.  Many women artists painted flowers & still-life in a style derived from Hunt, including Helen Coleman, Mary Duffield & Marian Chase Norman1977, Treuherz1993 p93, WoodC1999 p316

 ** William Holman HUNT, 1827-1910, England:

Background: He was born in London the son of a warehouse manager in the city who was strongly opposed to Holman becoming an artist.  His earlier work was painted during the period of mid-Victorian religious revivalism in the Church of England, which led to a religiosity which had an adverse effect on what could be painted without giving offence Grove15 p24, Hilton1970 p38, 1001 p424. [Another  contextual development was the idea that a systematic search could be made for a tell-tale clue.  This gained strength with the publication of Edgar Alan Poe’s Murder in the Rue Morgue  which featured C. August Dupin the first modern detective in 1841 & the establishment of the Metropolitan Police’s Detective Branch, 1842].

Training: After drawing classes at a mechanics’ institute in the evening & tuition under the portrait painter Henry Rogers, he studied from 1844 at the RA Schools where he became a close friend of Millais Grove15 p25, L&L

Influences: Ruskin’s Modern Painters Grove15 p25

Career: Initially he was a clerk, 1839-43.  He became a founder member of the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, 1848, & underwent a dramatic religious conversion from atheism in 1851.  He adopted an Evangelical belief in a literal reading of the scriptures & a belief in Christ as a real & living presence; & then painted his  [as in] Light of the World, 1851-53  Keble College, Oxford) in which Christ has an extraordinary reality.  Convinced that biblical subjects must be painted on the spot he went to Palestine, reaching Jerusalem, via Cairo in 1854.  He then worked by the Dead Sea & produced  another great masterpiece The [as in] Scapegoat, 1854-55 (Lady Lever Art Gallery, Port Sunlight).   He subsequently spent many years in Florence & Palestine, making his last visit to Jerusalem in 1892 Barringer p116, Grove15 pp 25, 27 L&L

Oeuvre: Landscapes, coastal scenes, religious, historical & allegorical works, literary subjects, genre featuring both British & Orientalist subject matter, together with portraits in oils, & watercolour during his travels webimages,Grove15 p28

Technique: He was probably the only Pre-Raphaelite to continue using their wet-on-wet method. During 1848-52 he painted landscape backgrounds  from nature almost always adding figures in the studio Sellars p131, Grove15 p27

Characteristics: His work was often minutely detailed as in The Hireling Shepherd, 1851-52 (Manchester City Art Gallery) Grove15 p25. An important aspect of his works, which tend to be highly symbolic, is the presence of visual clues which indicate the meaning of the picture & what Hunt is telling the viewer.  In The Awakening Conscience there are at least ten clues indicating the woman has recently been established as a kept mistress but is now having second thoughts.  They range from the esoteric to the way she is springing & facing the light; & in The Light of the World, which Hunt regarded as painted by divine command, Christ is knocking at an overgrown & long unopened door without a handle.  It can therefore only be opened by a believer from the inside.   At his best his meticulous detailing & vivid colour are admirable but all too often his imagery & technique can be heavy handed.  His colour became increasingly harsh & his late works are excessively detailed Wikip the Light of the World, Brigstocke, WestS1996, Murrays1959

Phases: Two paintings from Shakespeare shown at the RA in 1851 & 53 were an attempt to turn away from previous sensitive religious issues & to explore the theme of sexual morality with his [as in] Valentine Rescuing Sylvia from Proteus, 1850-51 (Museum & Art Gallery, Birmingham).  This depicted an attempted rape & the betrayal of friendship Grove15 p20

Feature: Like Turner, Hunt appears to have had an almost infinite capacity for taking paints & when he thought it necessary enduring hardship as he did when painting the background for his Scapegoat.  This he accomplished on the desolate shore of the Black Sea, which is a salt-lake, when he worked at Odoom/Uzdum.  He almost drowned in its slimy quicksand’s, confronted robbers but went on painting & one evening, when bitterly cold, began to dance to get  his circulation moving.  When a native companion urged him to repeat this he did so, waltzing with his gun as a partner.  Unfortunately, the goat died together with a replacement & the painting was not completed until Hunt was back in Jerusalem Holman-Hunt pp 158-62 

Innovation: Landscape backgrounds painted en plein air were an important development in works intended for public consumption.  His [as in] Finding of the Saviour in the Temple, 1860 (Birmingham Museum & Art Gallery) with its element of genre initiated a new form of religious art Grove15 pp 25-26

Grouping:  He never developed into a full-blown Symbolist but hovered uneasily between old fashioned religious allegory & classic Victorian genre Lucie-S1972 pp 38-41

Circle: The Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, namely James Colinson, John Everett Milais; Dante Gabriel & William Rossetti, Frederic Stephens, & Thomas Wollner.  For those associated with the grouping See the Pre-Raphaelites, Section 8

Patrons: Thomas Combe who was a Tractarian. They included the new northern collectors created by industrialisation, such as Sir Thomas Fairbairn.  He sold his Finding of the Saviour to the dealer Earnest Gambart for a record sum.  This was part of his new policy of disposing works major works privately rather than through the RA of which he never became a member Grove15 pp 26-28, L&L

Reception: His [as in] Hireling Shepherd ,1851-52, was his first commercial success (City Art Gallery, Manchester) & henceforth his work was greatly admired.  His ambitious attempt to tackle complex issues as in his Awakening Conscience, 1853-54  (The Tate) led to his works being misinterpreted with reviewers tending to concentrate on their sensational aspects instead of their deeper meaning & the way in which this was conveyed L&L, Grove15 p26

Repute & Critical Verdict: He had a State Funeral & was buried in St Paul’s.  A [as in] Street Scene in Cairo; the Lantern-makers’ Courtship, 1854, has been denounced as a shameful example of English insularity & a bewildering condemnation of a Muslim ban on a prospective husband even seeing the face of his future bride.  Moreover The [as in] Finding of the Saviour in the Temple, 1854-5 (City Museum & Art Gallery, Birmingham, both) is seen as reflecting the then current antisemitism, though what Hunt is  legitimately satirising is the old rabbis who are not looking at Christ, while a younger one who has been arguing with him gazes at him with interest.   After the First World War his work was scorned along with that of the other Pre-Raphaelites but during the 1960s there was a major revival of interest in the movement L&L, Hilton1970 p109, Wikip. 

Status/Verdict: He was one of the most admired painters of his age & The Light of the World became the most popular Protestant picture of the 19^th century largely through engravings.   Hunt was & an outstanding exemplar of Victorian dedication to hard work & entrepreneurial  activity.  His life & work embody, albeit in the field of painting, the age when Great Britain was the workshop of the world.  No wonder industrialists found his work appealing] L&L

Collections: The Tate & the municipal  galleries in Birmingham, Manchester & Liverpool.

William Morris HUNT, 1824-79, USA:

Background: Born in Brattleboro, Vermont Norman1977
Training: After studying in Düsseldorf and with Couture in Paris (1847) he worked for two years with Millet Norman1977
Career: After Hunt’s return to the USA in 1856 he became an artistic mentor in Boston in 1862 Norman1977
Oeuvre: A figure, portrait and, in later years, landscape painter Norman1977
Influenced: Hunt’s introduced the Barbizon School to America and was an important influence on La Farge and Hassam Norman1977

-HUNTER, George Leslie, 1879-1931, Scotland; Impressionism British & Irish:

Background: Born Rothesay, Isle of Bute OxDicMod
Training: In San Francisco1904 in Paris L&L
Influences: Fauves, then Matisse L&L
Career; In 1892 his parents emigrated to California, leaving him behind when they went back in 1899.   He worked as a painter & illustrator in San Francico, & visited New York & Paris, 1904.   After losing everything in the 1906 earthquake, he returned to Scotland settling in Glasgow.  The dealer Alexander Reid gave him support.   In 1923 he exhibited in London with Peplo & Cadell & in 1928 had a solo London show.   He suffered from mental problems & paranoia, did not look after himself & his health declined  L&L, OxDicMod, Flemings p122
Oeuvre: Landscapes with his best-known works being his vies of Loch Lomond, still-life & occasional portraits OxDicMod
Characteristics: His still-like consists of  very colourful & close up flowers, fruit & objects on tables, & his landscapes are painted in an Impressionistic manner with an increasingly energetic & unrestrained in colour & paint handling as in Ceres Fife (Fife shire Village) (Flemmings Collection) webimage, Flemings pp 120-1
Grouping : Scottish Colourism L&L

*HUSZAR/HERZ, Vilmos, 1884-1960, Netherlands (Hungary)

Background: He was born in Budapest & was a Jew L&L, Grove15 p36

Training: At the Academy of Applied arts, Budapest, 1901-3, & the Academy in Munich, 1904 Grove15 p36

Influences: Van Gogh, Cubism & Futurism, & after 1930 Bart Van der Leck Grove15 p36

Career: After being briefly at the artists’ colonies Tesco & Nagbany, he became a portraitist The Hague, 1906.  In 1917 helped found the periodical De Stijl, settled in Harderwijk in the Netherlands during World War IIGrove15 p36, OxDicMod, L&L

Oeuvre: Paintings, graphic art & design OxDicMod

Phases: Initially portraits & landscapes in bright colours, then abstraction & naturalistic landscapes from 1940 Grove15 p36

Characteristics: OxDicMod

Circle: In the mid-1920s he befriended Kurt Schwitters & Hungarian avant-gardists Grove15 p36

Grouping/Influence: His derivation of geometric abstraction from nature contributed to the development of Neo-Plasticise Grove15 p36, L&L

..HUYS, Pieter, c1519-before 1586, Belgium:

Background: Born Antwerp Grove15 p42
Influences: Bosch & Pieter Bruegel the Elder.   He was familiar with recent humanistic & Manneristic developments in Italy Grove15 p42
Career: in 1545 he became a master in the Antwerp Guild of St Luke Grove15 p42
Oeuvre: Paintings & engravings Grove15 p42
Characteristics: Bosch-like work although he was a creative follower.   His figures are more lifelike, his colours stronger & his brushwork thicker.   He did not confine himself to imaginative scenes Grove15 p42

Huysum/Huijsum   See Jan & Jacobus van Huysum

I

–IBBETSON, Julius Caesar, 1759-1817, England: Romantic Picturesque Movement [retain this]

Background: He was born at Leeds, the son of a clothier Grove15 p57

Training: He was apprenticed to John Fletcher, a ship painter in Hull, 1775 Grove15 p57

Influences: De Loutherbourg, Dutch 17^th century landscape & Claude Waterhouse1953 p326, Grove15 pp 57-8

Career: In 1777 he moved to London where he was employed copying or forging Dutch landscapes, Gainsborough, Wilson etc.  From 1785 he exhibited at the RA & in 1787-8 was personal draughtsman to Col, Charles Cathcart on the first British Missing to Beijing.  From 1789 he made frequent tours & toured Wales in 1792,  & Aberglaslyn: The Flash of Lightening evokes the sublimity of . He painted small Shakespearean scenes for Boydell’s Gallery.   In straitened circumstances he moved to Liverpool in 1798 & worked for William Roscoe & Thomas Vernon, & after 1800 mostly lived in Yorkshire Grove15 p57, Waterhouse1953 p326

Feature: He encouraged lady amateurs to paint in oils Grove 15 p58

Oeuvre: Oil & watercolour landscape & sometimes humorous genre, occasional portraits; etchings Grove15 p57, OxDicArt

Characteristics: He used thick impasto & strong chiaroscuro & his large Lake District oils usually have tree repoussoir, picturesque figures & sinuous line.  His blue-toned & delicate watercolours feature astutely balanced landscape, atmosphere & human incident Grove 15 p58

Verdict: His highly individual watercolours are his finest achievement, & his later Yorkshire views are competent & charming Grove15 p58, Waterhouse1953 p326

Friend: Moorland OxDicArt

Gossip: He was Caesarean born OxDicArt

Grouping: Picturesque & Romantic painting Grove15  pp 57-8

Il Bamboccio.   See van Laer

Il Borgognone.   See CouRtoIs, Guillaume & Jacques

Il Cerano/Crespi.   See Cerano

Il Cigoli.   See Cigoli

–  IL BOLOGNESE / GRIMALDI, Giovanni  Francesco,  1606-80=Rome:

Background:  Born Bologna  Grove 13 p655
Training: In Bologna in the Carracci circle Grove13 p655
Career: He went to Rome around 1626 & by 1635 belonged to the Academy of St Luke was chiefly active in Rome  & worked in Paris during 1649-51 L&L
Oeuvre: Paintings, frescoes, engravings & architecture L&L
Characteristics: His relatively rare cabinet pictures of classical landscapes for which he is best remembered are in the style of Annibale Carracci L&L, Grove13 p656
Verdict: His frescoes were accomplished Grove13 p655
Circle: The artists who worked with Pietro da Cortona Grove13 p655
Patronage: The leading Roman families including the Santacroce, Pamphili & Borghese.   He also worked  for Cardinal Mazarin & at the Louvre Grove13 pp 655-6
Legacy: His many etchings & drawings spread the influence of Bolognese landscape throughout Europe Grove 13 p655

Il Borgognone.   See CourtoIs, Guillaume & Jacques

 *IL MORAZZONE/MAZZUCCHELLI, Pier, 1573-1626, Italy=Marche & Lombardy; Baroque:

Background: He was born at Morazzone, the son of a master mason Grove22 p81

Influences:  His works in Rome probably drew on the work of Taddeo Zuccari & Salimbeni, etc.  He was strongly affected by the poetry & mysticism of St Carlo Boromeo together with Tintoretto & Morazzone’s great predecessor at the Sacre Monte of Varallo, Gaudenzio Ferrari Grove22 p81, L&L

Career: He was in Rome from around 1592 to 98 where he may have worked in the studio of the Cavaliere d’Arpino; then he established himself in Morazzone but travelled throughout Lombardy, & to some extent the Piedmont & Liguria painting frescos & altarpieces; during 1602-17 he worked at the Sacra Montes at Varallo, Varesa & Orti L&L, Waterhouse1962 p139

Oeuvre: Frescoes & oils Grove22 pp 82-83

Phases/Characteristics: Early elegant Mannerist work but then his mature Sacra Monte frescoes inspired by Ferrari & a continuation of local Renaissance tradition as in his dramatic, crowded  & splendidly colourful Ecce Homo, Chapel  XXXIII, Varallo, 1609-16, with its marvellous perspectival composition Waterhouse1962 p139, L&L, webimage.  His later work included his [as in] Mary Magdalene Borne to Heaven by Angels, 1611(S Vittore, Varese) with its surprising combination of eroticism & piety, brilliant light effects, the hair of the angels gleaming like spun gold; & his [as in] Adoration of the Magi, c1611 (S Antonio Abate, Milan, another painting with a bright range of hues.  His [as in] outstanding  Last Judgement (chapel of the Buona Morte, S Gaudenzio, Novara, etc) with its macabre details, horrifying imagery & doom-laden atmosphere epitomises the morbid intensity of Lombard painting in the early 17^th century.  After 1557 Morazzone’s work tends to become increasingly stiff & dry    Grove22 pp 81-82, C-B pp 57-59 

Status: With Cerano & Procaccini he was the most important painter in Milan during the early 1600s L&L

Verdict: Although well-known for his altarpieces his outstanding achievement are the large decorative frescoes at Varallo & Varese Grove22 p81

Grouping : He has been regarded a late Mannerist, an Anti-Mannerist &  a Baroque artist Pevsner1968 p15,  Friedlaender1955 p37, Waterhouse1962 p139

Patronage: The Tovagliari family; Charles-Emanuel I, Duke of Savoy; & Ferdinando, 6^th Duke of Mantua, etc Grove22 pp 82-83

IL PADOVANINO/VAROTARI, Alessandro, 1588-1648, Italy=Venice (Padua); Baroque

Background: Born Padua.  His father was Dario Varotari, a painter & architect  Grove23 p749

Training: Presumably his father Wikip

Influences: Titian’s earlier works, Annibale Carracci, Palma Giovanne, Michelangelo, & later Veronese Grove23 pp 749-50

Career/Circle: He went to Venice, 1614, making trips to Rome soon after & in 1625.  He associated with & was influenced by the most cultivated group in Venice particularly the Accademia deli Incognito Grove23 pp 749, 751, Wikip

Oeuvre: Religious paintings, together with  mythological & historical works frequently of unusual of subjects, together with pastiches of early Titian Grove23 pp749-50, L&L

Characteristics/Phases: His works featured a refined & often languid academic eclecticism.  From 1631 he developed a subtle decorative quality & his colour harmonies became richer.  Penelope Offering the Bow of Ulysses to the Suitors, 1620s  (NG Ireland) exemplifies the learned, esoteric nature of his work.  However, his work also featured erotic, twisting female nudes in complex configurations as in Graces & Cupids, 1620 (The Hermitage, St Petersburg, 1620) Wittkower1973 347, Grove 23 p750-51, webimages

Verdict: It has been mixed & he has been criticised for producing  ham-fisted Titianesque pastiches, though they were occasionally attractive Steer p169,  Waterhouse1962 p117

Patrons: Castlesiano dal Pozzo L&L
Grouping: Baroque Waterhouse1962 p117
Pupils: Pietro Liberi, Bartolomeo Scaliger, Pietro della Vecchiza, & Giulio Caproni Wikip

Legacy: He helped launch the vogue for Venetian  painting in Rome & most Venetian painters between  1625 & 75 stemmed from him together with Girolamo Forbosco from Padua L&L, Wittkower1973 p347

Sister: Chiara Varotari was a well-known portraitist Wikip
Son: Dario Varotari the Younger was a painter Wikip

– IL REPOSO/FISCHERILLI, Felice, c1605-69, Italy=Florence:

-IL VOLTERRANO/FRANCESCHINI, Baldassare, 1611-89, Italy=Florence; Baroque:

Background: He was born in Volterra, the son of a sculptor Grove11 p678
Training: With the local artist Cosimo Daddi; & with Matteo Rosselli in Florence from 1628 Grove11 p678
Influences: Correggio, Michelangelo, Raphael & Furini for cabined pictures. & in particular Pietro Cortona’s large-scale frescos in Rome which were a turning point in Volterrano’s career Grove11 p678, L&L, Wittkower p345
Career: He began as Giovanni de San Giovanni’s assistant; painted frescoes for Don Lorenzo de ’Medici about the family in the Villa Petraia, 1637 until around 1648.   In 1640 he visited Bologna, Ferrar, Venice, Palma & almost certainly Rome Grove11 p678, Wittkower p344
Oeuvre: Frescoes, oils with Cabinet pictures featuring sfumato & fine portraits L&L
Characteristics/Phases: His early works were influenced by Rosselli & Mannerism.  He painted [as in] works of exceptional Baroque splendour in the chapel of S Asano in SS Annunziata, 1644, & also decorated the [as in] dome of its Niccolini chapel where there are huge & spectacular Sybils in the squinches below, 1553-1661.  The dome features stimulating colour contrasts using blue & gold, together with chiaroscuro Grove11 pp 678-79, Wittkower p344, webimages & information.
Status: He was the outstanding Baroque decorative artist in Florence between 1647 when Cortona left & 1682 when Giordano arrived L&L

..INCHBOLD, John, 1830-98, England:

Background: He was born in Leeds the son of the owner of the Leeds Intelligencer WoodDic, Barringer p71
Training: As a draftsman in a London lithographic works, watercolour under Louis Haghe, & the RA Schools, 1847 WoodDic
Influences: The Pre-Raphaelites WoodDic

Career: He exhibited at the RA from 1851 to 1885, & The Moorland, 1855, was highly praised by Ruskin, his host in Switzerland in 1857.   His later years were spent largely in Spain, Italy etc WoodDic
Oeuvre: Landscapes WoodDic

Phases/Characteristics: His early works were Pre-Raphaelite but he gradually adopted a freer style but his work remained poetic WoodDic
Style: He frequently painted Lumanist works Wilmerding p220
Personal: He was shy & brusque & alienated patrons Barringer p73.
Circle: He knew the Pre-Raphaelite circle & was friends with Coventry Patmore & Swinburne WoodDic

INDIANA/CLARK, Robert, 1928-2018, USA:

Background: He was born at New Castle, Indiana Grove15 p184
Training: At the Art Institute, Chicago, 1949-53; the Skowhegan School of Painting & Sculpture, Maine, Summer 1953; & Edinburgh University College of Art, 1953-4  Grove15 p184
Influences: Melville, Whitman, William Carlos Williams, Hart Crane & other writers; the hard-edge paintings by friends including Ellsworth Kelly & Jack Youngerman.  He was also influenced by numbers & what he supposed they signified. For instance zero stands between life & death L&L, Grove15 p184
Career: He settled in New York, 1960; & moved to the remote island of Vinalhaven off the Maine coast, 1978 Grove15 p184
Oeuvre: Abstract paintings together with some figurative works, prints & wooden constructions L&L, Grove15 p184
Characteristics: Geometric works in flat bright colours & clearly defined contours intended to denote the superficial & illusory American Dream in works featuring lettering & numbers as in the painting Figure 5, 1963 (National Museum of American Art, Washington L&L, Grove15 p184
Grouping: He was a central figure in Pop Art L&L
Reception: He had international success in the 1960s & his [as in] painting Love, 1966 (Indianapolis Museum of Art, Indiana), & other works, became icons for the hippy generation of the 1960s L&L

.INDUNO, 1815-78, Gerolamo, Italy

Background: He was born in Milan into a poor family Norman1977
Training: At the Milan Academy under Sabatelli Norman1977
Career: He was involved in the 1848 Revolution, afterwards lived in Switzerland until 1859, & then settled in Milan.   His patriotic Peace of Villafranca, 1860, brought him fame throughout Italy Norman1977
Oeuvre/Phases/Characteristics: His early subjects were historical & religious but in 1846 he turned to contemporary patriotic scenes & genre featuring the life of the poor.   His brushwork became increasingly summary & from around 1860 he adopted bright colours Norman1977.

-INGLES  Jorge (George the Englishman)  c1544-85, Spain=Catalonia:

Background: He was probably of northern origin his name meaning George the Englishman OxDicArt
Influences: Rogier van der Weyden Grove15 p834
Oeuvre: Panel paintings in oils & manuscript illustration Brigstocke
Characteristics: His drawing was vigourous with figures that are well drawn & expressive, especially the faces & hands.   The settings have an impressive but ambiguous use of perspective & are filled with carpets, flagstones, etc, in rich & striking colour.   There are views through to landscape, as in St Jerome in his Study, c1482 (Museo Nacional de Enculture, Valladolid).  Here the subsidiary figures are diminutive Grove15 p834, Brigstocke, webimages
Innovations: He produced Catalonia’s first known ratable in the Hispano-Spanish style & was the first Castilian painter to employ oils on panel L&L, Grove15 p834
Patronage: Inigo Lopez de Mendoza, Marquis of Santillana Grove15 pp 834-5

***INGRES, Jean-Auguste-Dominique, 1780-1867, France; Troubadour Movement

Background: Montaubaun in southern France, the son of an artist L&L
Training: The Toulon Academy & from 1797 with David L&L
Influences: The Barbus of Primitifs Honour1979 p38
Career: In 1801 he won the Rome Prize & but was unable to go there until 1806.    Both before & after he painted portraits, notable for their calligraphic line expressive contour.   He now began to paint bathers.   In 1820 he moved to Florence & in 1824 back to Paris   Here he  became the head of the traditionalist party in French art.    In 1834 he returned to Rome to direct the French Academy but returned to Paris in 1841 L&L, OxDicArt.    Here he opposed any ideas except his own, used his influence against Delacroix & younger rebels,  & helped entrench mediocrity Murrays1959.    His wife died in 1849 but he re-married in 1852 L&L.

Oeuvre: Small jewel-like history paintings,  subject pictures, poeticised Oriental scenes with voluptuous nudes, & portraits L&L, Murrays1959.   He made  drawings of nude couples embracing & finely executed copies of 16^th century erotic Italian prints Webb p163.
Characteristics:  His technique was superb & his line sinuous OxDicArt, Murrays1959.  [ It is also extremely precise with boundaries that are seldom blurred.   In his portraits eyes look confidently &, almost without exception, directly at the viewer regardless of whether the sitter is male or female.   Features are firmly modelled & faces are thrust forward by being set against backgrounds that are often dark & never distract.   Colouring, both in portraits & other works, is never mushy, often sumptuous &, when flesh is being depicted, delicate & carefully modulated, with exquisite shadowing] See illustrations in Rosenblum1990.      
Verdict: In 1864 Thore, not meaning to be complimentary, described Ingres as “the most Romantic artist of the 19^th century” Honour1979 p55

Gossip: According to a young model, he embarrassed her with his cries of admiration & when she departed he would kiss her hand & say “lovely child” ThompsonJ p25.   He became so excited by opera & cabaret dancers that he copulated with his wife in the carriage on way home Webb pp 163-4
Status: Although he was he was held up as a Classicist, his finest works were, as Baudelaire remarked, “the product of a deeply sensuous nature” OxDicArt
Repute: Some of his work during his lifetime was bitterly criticised Murrays1959.   Sometimes this was for the expressive distortions of his draftsmanship, it being said that La Grande Odalisque had three extra vertebrae OxDicArt.    This & his other Salon picture of 1819 – Rogier Freeing Angelica – aroused hostility for their radical departure from the Davidian tradition, while The Apotheois of Homer, 1827, was applauded by the Romantic School Honour1979 pp 46-7

Pupils: Although they were numerous Chessariau was the only one of distinction OxDicArt
Influence: Degas & Seurat.   Picasso greatly admired his draftsmanship L&L
Collections: the Ingres Museum, Montauban & the Musee d’Orsay.

-George INNES, 1825-94 (elder), USA:

Background: Born Newburgh, New York Grove15 p858

Training: Initially with an itinerant artist & then in 1843 with a few lessons from a student of Paul Delaroche, whose landscapes were delicate & sweet Grove15 p858, I&C p255

Influences: The Old Master especially Claude & then, during his French trip, Barbizon Grove15 p858.

Career: He grew up in Newark & New York City.   He visited Italy in 1851-2.  In 1853 he visited France, & between 1870 & 1875 was in Europe again where he settled in Rome.   In America he lived at Medfield from about 1860 & later at Englewood NJ where there was a utopian community.  In the mid-1860s he began studying spiritualism & he became a Swedenborgian.   From 1878 he lived at Montclair NJ Grove15 pp 858-9.

Technique: He covered the canvas with a thin glaze of Indian red, touched in the main mases of shadow in black, & then gradually advanced the picture by constant working over I&C p258

Phases: He evolved from a pure Hudson River style in the late forties to  clear panoramic one in the fifties, then gained increasing richness & sophistication during the sixties & seventies, & ended with an abstract, subjective & abstract style during the eighties Wilmerding p216.   At Medfield his style began changing.   He chose picturesque subjects but painted them in subtle harmonies of colour with a broad massing of light and shade OxDicArt

Characteristics: He aimed at skies in half tone against which the lights & darks of the picture should contrast.   This explains why his pictures are richer & more decorative than where the sky is as bright as possible I&C p258

Beliefs: A work of Art does not appeal to the intellect or the moral sense.  “Its aim is not to instruct, not to edify, but to awaken an emotion”.   The true beauty of the work consists in the quality & force of this emotion.   Detail must not be so elaborated that it destroys the unity of impression I&C p256.   The proper aim of art was painting “not of outer fact but of an inner life” Wilmerding p214.   His belief that all material objects were spiritually charged was Swedenborgian Gove15 p859

Personal: He was an intense & brooding man who suffered from chronically poor health Wilmerding p36, Grove15 p256      

Grouping: Tonalism TurnerRtoI p352

Verdict: He is often considered the best American landscapist of the 19^th century OxDicArt

Reception: During the 1840s & 50s his work was criticised for being non-Hudson River but during the 1880s &90s the response improved greatly Grove15 p859.   However, until the end of his life his larger works sold with difficulty & he was not praised like Church or Bierstadt I&C p261

Legacy: His son George Innes Junior, 1854-26, was also a painter OxDicArt

-James INNES,  1887-1914, Wales:

Background: Born Llanelli Baron p88
Training: Carmarthen Art School, 1904-5; & at the Slade, 1906-8 Baron p88
Influences: Aspects of Matisse L&L
Career: He was an occasional visitor at Fitzroy Street, 1907-8, & a member of the Camden Town Group.  Innes joined NEAC in 1911.   Between 1908 &1913 he  travelled extensively in France, Spain, North Africa & the Canaries.   He often painted with his close friend Augustus John, particularly in Wales, 1911-2 Baron p88, OxDicMod
Oeuvre: Mainly romantic landscapes but some interior scenes when he was in contact with the Fitzroy Street Group L&L, Baron p174
Style: He was not committed to Modernism & his work had personal visionary qualities L&L

..IOGANSON, Boris, 1893-1973, Russia:

Background: He was born in Moscow Bown1991 p242

Training: In the studio of Pyotr Kelin, 1912-3,  & under Nikolay Kasatkin, Abram Arkhipov &  Konstantin Korovin at the Moscow School of Painting, Sculpture & Architecture, 1913-8  Bown1991 pp 52, 242, Grove15 p891.

Career: He served in the Red Army & worked as a stage designer in Kherson province 1919-22.   He 1922 he exhibited with the Wanderers.   During 1923-31 he belonged to the Association of Artists of Revolutionary Russia (AKhRR & AKhR), & then the Russian Association of Proletarian Artists (RAPKh)  Bown1991 p242.   In 1929 he had  to admit to political errors Bown1991 p67.   He taught at the Moscow Polygraphed Institute, 1932-5; at the Moscow Institute of Visual Art, 1935-9; at the Institute of Painting, 1939-60; & at the Moscow State Art Institute, 1964-7.   During 1941-4 he was Director of the Tretyakov, & between 1949 & 1960 led the painting studio at the Academy of Arts in Moscow & St Petersburg.   He was First Secretary  of the USSR Union of Artists, 1965-8.   He received  Stalin Prizes in 1941 & 51 Bown1991 p242.

Beliefs: Russian painters are innovators.   Form should not be divorced from reality Grove15 p891.

Oeuvre/Characteristics: He painted highly detailed works depicting Socialist construction, e.g., Building of the Zemo-Arhhalay Hydroelectric Power Station, 1925;  a series of political works e.g., the propaganda work Trial in a Soviet Court, 1928, supporting collectivisation , & historical works glorifying the class struggle in Tzarist times & the heroes of the Revolution, e.g., Interrogation of the Communists, 1933, & In an Old Urals Factory, 1937  Grove15 p891, Bown1991 pp 52, 102.

Beliefs: Russian painters are innovators.   Form should not be divorced from reality Grove15 p891.

Status: He was one of the most important artists in the establishment of Socialist Realism Grove15 p891

..Eugene ISABEY, 1803-86, Jean-Baptiste’s son, France:

Background: Born in Paris Norman1977

Influences: Strongly influenced by Delacroix Norman1977

Career: Isabey’s first paintings of the sea around Le Havre began his artistic career.   His seascapes and landscapes exhibited at the Salon of 1824 were successful.   He also became court painter to Louis-Philippe, depicting several important events Norman1977

Oeuvre: A marine, landscape and genre painter of the French Romantic school.   Isabey worked from nature in Normandy and Britanny, often in watercolour Norman1977

Characteristics: Applied a summary brushwork and sparkling colour to his scenes, imbuing seascapes with a powerful feeling of the drama of nature Norman1977

Influenced: Isabey’s work was an important early influence on Boudin and the Munich school Norman1977

..Jean-Baptiste ISABEY, 1767-1855, Eugene’s father, France:

Background: Born in Nancy Norman1977
Training: Studied with Dumont and David Norman1977
Career: First exhibited at the 1793 salon.   A favourite of Napoléon and Joséphine and the official organizer of their fêtes.   Thereafter worked for Louis XVIII, Charles X, Louis-Philippe and Napoléon III Norman77
Oeuvre: Portrait miniatures Norman1977
Repute: The most successful French portrait miniaturist Norman1977

-ISENBRANDT/YSENBRANDT, -1551, Belgium:

Influences: Gerard David but a number of other artists also played a part Grove16 p69.
Background: In 1510 he became a master in the Bruges Guild of St Luke & held important posts in the Guild of Sculptors & Saddlemakers between 1518 & 1538.   He appears to have been famous & well-to-do.   However there are no documented or signed works but in 1902 a large group of works were attributed to him Grove16 p69,  OxDicArt
Oeuvre: The quality of his works is uneven & varies within paintings probably due to collaboration.   He mass produced works in Gerard David’s style.  His best works are small & medium sized idyllic scenes, mostly religious.   The donor portraits are mostly rather lifeless but he was a better portraitist.   His colour was superior to that of Gerard David & he used warmer tones, particularly red Grove16 p69,  L&L

 ..Isaac ISRAELS, 1865-1934, Jozef’s son, Netherlands=The Hague:

Background:  He was born at Amsterdam Grove16 p575
Training: He was largely self-taught but during 1878-80  attended the Hague Academy, 1878-80 Grove16 p575
Influences: Breitner; The Hague School, & later the Impressionists for their vivid colours & vigorous brushwork Grove16 p576, OxDicArt
Career: He was a child prodigy with his work being shown in the Salon in 1882.   In 1888 he moved from Amsterdam to the Oosterpark neighbourhood where he had a studio in the same building as George  Breitner; visited Paris in 1889 meeting Berthe Morisot & Zola.  During 1903-14 he had a Parisian studio; was in London 1913-14; mainly in The Hague, 1915-34 but visited South-east Asia, !922; etc B&B pp 110. 154, Grove16 p576
Oeuvre: Oils, watercolours, pastels, of military subjects; & genre works featuring cafes, cabarets, dance halls, seamstresses in fashion houses, street-life, park & beach scenes, nudes, occasional still-life, portraits, together with late etchings & lithographs Grove 16 pp 575-6
Characteristics: His style was almost completely independent of his father’s.   Like Breitner, he had a predilection for portraying working women OxDicArt, B&B p118
Phases: His early work was precise using soft grey & brown Hague School tones.  In his later Impressionist works he applied transparent pinks, blues, greens, light browns, etc, to capture the play of light as in Dressmaker in the Jardin des Tuileries, c1905 (Museum, Dordrecht).   From 1894 he painted plein air works Grove16 p575-6
Circle: In Amsterdam he was central in the Tachtigers/Eighties Movement of writers & painters, & friends with Breitner, Lodewijk Van Dyssel, Frans Erens, Max Liebermann, Jan Veth & Jan Voerman Grove16 p576
Collections: Municipal Museums, Amsterdam & The Hague

-Jozef ISRAELS, 1824-1911, Isaac’s father, Netherlands=The Hague:

Background: From a Jewish family B&B p160
Training: 1835 Minerva Academy, Groningen, 1842 Amsterdam Academy, 1845 Ecole des Beaux Arts in Picot’s studio B&B p160
Influences: initially Rembrandt & Ary Scheffer L&L, B&B p160
Career: In 1855 he became ill & went to live at Zandfoortm, a fishing village neear Haarlem, where he lodged for seven weeks with a ship’s carpenter.   Here, & nearby in the following year, he shared the life of the fishing community isolated from the art world.   He came to see that the tragic & poetic qualities of humble village life could be a more powerful & immediate subject than the themes of traditional history painting Treuherz1987 p47.    During 1863-71 he lived in Amsterdam.   In 1871 he settled in The Hague but paid regular visits to the village of Laren in the Gooi region B&B p160.

Phases: Initially he was a portrait & historical painter.   However, in the 1855 he turned to scenes of peasants & fishermen  & their mileau,  painting romantic-realistic pieces representing death etc OxDicArt, B&B p160.   After his marriage in 1863 he temporarily switched to more idyllic doemestic interiors but in 1878 returned to works concerned with death & suffering.   During the 1890s his brushwork gradually became looser, contours became vaguer & his chirascuro more muted as he sought to enhance the mood of his pictures.   His work now included Biblical & Jewish scenes B&B p160
Characteristics: His works depicting suffering are not anecdotral because they simply record how people experience adversity B&B p160.  Israels had the rare Rembrandt-like gift of instilling his pictures with compassion Novotny p299

Innovation: His work has an epic quality & grandeur of scale new to genre painting & the village scenes & cottage interiors popular throughout Europe Treuherz1987 p47
Grouping: The Hague School L&L
Influence: Faed, Holl, Bramley, Langley & the Newlyn School Treuherz1987 p49
Repute: Israels was given a state funeral B&B p160.   Later he was more or less disregarded L&L
Collections: Municipal Museums, Amsterdam & The Hague         

*ITTEN, Johannes, 1888-1967, Switzerland:

Background: Born Suden-Linden OxDicMod.   His father was a teacher L&L
Training: Under Holzel in Stuttgart, 1913-16 OxDicMod
Influences: In 1915 Itten  painted his first abstract pictures L&L.   During 1916 he opened an art school in Vienna.   From 1919 to 1923 he taught the preliminary course at the Bauhaus.   He emphasised the importance of knowledge of materials but also wanted his pupils to develop their imaginations through automatic writing etc.   In 1923, after quarreling with Gropius, he left & opened a school in Berlin.   From 1932 to 1938 he taught at the Krefeld School of Textile Design & in 1938 settled in Zurich where he was director of the School of Arts & Crafts OxDicMod

Career: He trained as a primary school teacher OxDicMod
Oeuvre: Painter, designer, writer on art OxDicMod
Phases: He initially painted expressive abstracts, then symbolic semi-naturalistic works, & later work ranging from deicate nature studies to abstract colour compositions L&L
Personal: He had a reputation as a crank, followed an obscure faith (Mazdazhan), shaved his head & wore a long robe OxDicMod

*IVANOV, Alexander, 1806-58, Russia:

Background: Born St Petersburg.   His father was a professor at the Academy but was dismissed by Nicholas I, c1830 50Rus p96

Training: St Petersburg Academy L&L

Influences: Profoundly by the Nazarenes Norman1977.   He consulted Cornelius & Overbeck before undertaking Christ Appearing to the People Hamilton pp 365-6

Career: His concluding student picture, Joseph Interprets the Prisoners’ Dreams (1827), received a gold medal but was thought politically suspect & he had to produce a new diploma work in order to be allowed to go to Italy 50Rus p96.  In 1830 he travelled through Germany to Rome.   From about 1835 he laboured for some 20 years in Italy working on Christ Appearing.   He made 24 compositional studies & over 200 sketches.   The 1848 Revolution led to religious doubt & he fell under the influence of the German theologian Strauss.   Later he planned a worldwide network of temples to promote universal brotherhood Norman1977, L&L

Oeuvre: His early works were on classical & religious themes Norman1977.   He also painted landscapes featuring nude boys 50Rus p98

Characteristics: Some of his sketches display spontaneous & sensitive realism Norman1977.   His landscapes, with their range of bright fresh colours, anticipated the naturalistic vision of the French Impressionists Hamilton p366

Belief in the power of art to transform man.   “The world abounds in evil…Art has forgotten to keep pace with social ideas”.   He railed against “the fetters of the monarchy” & “the haughtiness of the aristocracy “, & the emptiness of the powerful 50Rus pp 96-7  

Friends: Gogol & Herzen 50Rus p98

Grouping: He has been authoritatively treated as a romantic painter, despite the observation that in his Christ Appearing the counter-currents of Classicism, Romanticism & Realism can be seen at work Hamilton Ch25 & p365

Feature: Ivanov was included in Lenin’s planned monuments to precursors of the Revolution L&L

Legacy: His etudes for Christ’s Appearance schooled the following generation in realism 50Rus p97.   And some of his drawings, in preparation for a projected series of religious scenes, explored Byzantine art & encouraged the Byzantine revival later in the century Hamilton pp 367-8